Richard P. Douglass

Living a calling and work well-being: a longitudinal study.

The current study examined the link between living a calling and career commitment, work meaning, and job satisfaction with a diverse group of working adults at 3 time points over a 6-month period. Using structural equation modeling, 3 models were tested that hypothesized that living a calling would predict career commitment, work meaning, and job satisfaction over time. However, counter to hypotheses, living a calling was best positioned as an outcome of each of these variables. Specifically, living a calling at Time 2 and Time 3 was significantly predicted by career commitment, work meaning, and job satisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2, respectively. Time 2 living a calling did predict Time 3 work career commitment and work meaning, but these effects were small. Results suggest that over time, individuals who feel committed to their career, derive more meaning from their work, and are more satisfied with their jobs are more likely to feel they are living a calling. Practical implications are discussed.

Meaning in life and work: A developmental perspective

This study examined linear and nonlinear relations between age and the presence and search for meaning in life and examined if these relations were moderated by the presence of meaning in work. Age did not significantly relate to the presence of meaning in life, but age had a significant, negative linear relation with the search for meaning in life. Moreover, work meaning moderated the quadratic relation between age and life meaning. Specifically, people high in work meaning demonstrated negative quadratic curves, with high life meaning during middle adulthood, and people low in work meaning had positive quadratic curves, with low life meaning during middle adulthood. Work meaning also moderated the linear relation between age and the search for meaning in life with people highest in work meaning showing the strongest negative relation between age and the search for meaning in life. Limitations and implications for future research are discussed.

Assessing Work as a Calling An Evaluation of Instruments and Practice Recommendations

This study examined the utility of five popular assessments of work as a calling. A large and diverse group of working adults completed the Calling Paragraph, Brief Calling Scale (BCS), Calling and Vocation Questionnaire (CVQ), Calling Scale (CS), and Multidimensional Calling Measure (MCM) at two time points, along with a face valid measure of having a calling (yes or no) and three work-related outcomes. All measures were found to be reliable; have strong test–retest reliability; and moderately to strongly correlate with work meaning, career commitment, and job satisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed mixed evidence concerning the ability of all instruments to load onto one factor. The BCS and CVQ were the best predictors of having a calling, whereas the CS and MCM were the best predictors of work outcomes. The discussion highlights the complexities of each of these instruments in accurately assessing a calling versus a more global, positive work outlook. Recommendations are offered for researchers seeking to study work as a calling.

Examining how aspects of vocational privilege relate to living a calling

The current study examined how aspects of vocational privilege directly – and indirectly via work meaning and career commitment – related to living a calling. With an economically diverse sample of 361 employed adults, both social class and work volition were found to moderately to strongly correlate with work meaning, career commitment, and living a calling. We used a structural equation model and found career commitment and work meaning to significantly predict living a calling and fully mediate the link between work volition and living a calling. Additionally, social class related to work meaning and career commitment via work volition. Findings suggest that the links between social class, work volition, and living a calling may be explained by individuals working in jobs they are committed to and that are meaningful, and that work volition may represent the gateway from social class to the experience of fulfilling work. Implications for practice are discussed.

The development and initial validation of the Decent Work Scale.

Decent work is positioned as the centerpiece of the recently developed Psychology of Working Theory (PWT; Duffy, Blustein, Diemer, & Autin, 2016). However, to date, no instrument exists which assesses all 5 components of decent work from a psychological perspective. In the current study, we developed the Decent Work Scale (DWS) and demonstrated several aspects of validity with 2 samples of working adults. In Study 1 (N = 275), a large pool of items were developed and exploratory factor analysis was conducted resulting in a final 15-item scale with 5 factors/subscales corresponding to the 5 components of decent work: (a) physically and interpersonally safe working conditions, (b) access to health care, (c) adequate compensation, (d) hours that allow for free time and rest, and (e) organizational values that complement family and social values. In Study 2 (N = 589), confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that a 5-factor, bifactor model offered the strongest and most parsimonious fit to the data. Configural, metric, and scalar invariance models were tested demonstrating that the structure of the instrument did not differ across gender, income, social class, and majority/minority racial/ethnic groups. Finally, the overall scale score and 5 subscale scores correlated in the expected directions with similar constructs supporting convergent and discriminant evidence of validity, and subscale scores evidenced predictive validity in the prediction of job satisfaction, work meaning, and withdrawal intentions. The development of this scale provides a useful tool for researchers and practitioners seeking to assess the attainment of decent work among employed adults.

Living a Calling, Nationality, and Life Satisfaction A Moderated, Multiple Mediator Model

The present study examined the differences in the experience of a calling among working adults in the Unites States and India. First, we examined group differences in perceiving a calling and living a calling between Americans and Indians, with Indians being more likely to endorse perceiving and living out a calling than Americans. Second, we tested a moderated, multiple mediator model to investigate the mediating role of life meaning and job satisfaction in the relation of living a calling to life satisfaction and the moderating role of nationality. Supporting prior research, both life meaning and job satisfaction were found to mediate the relation between living a calling and life satisfaction. Furthermore, we found that nationality moderated the living calling–life meaning and living calling–job satisfaction links. These results indicate the importance of nationality in the link between living a calling and life satisfaction. Implications for research are discussed.

Examining Predictors of Work Volition Among Undergraduate Students

The present article examined predictors of work volition, or the perception of control in one’s future career decision making, with two samples of undergraduate students. Building from the Psychology of Working Framework, in Study 1, a hierarchical regression analysis was conducted examining four classes of potential predictors: demographic characteristics, positive affect, sense of control, and career barriers. Social class, sense of control, and career barriers were significant predictors of work volition. In Study 2, a new sample of undergraduate students were surveyed at two time points to examine the temporal relation of work volition with social class, sense of control, and career barriers. Structural equation modeling was used to construct a cross-lagged model. Time 2 work volition was predicted by Time 1 social class and career barriers. Additionally, Time 1 work volition predicted Time 2 career barriers and general sense of control. Implications for practice are discussed.

Meaningful Work as a Moderator of the Relation Between Work Stress and Meaning in Life

The present study examined the relations between work stress and both the presence of and search for meaning in life. Three components of meaningful work—positive meaning, meaning-making, and greater good motivations—were investigated as potential moderators. As hypothesized, work stress had a significant, negative relation with the presence of meaning in life, and a significant, positive relation with the search for meaning in life. Furthermore, the meaning making component of meaningful work moderated the relation between work stress and the presence of meaning in life. Specifically, meaning making served as a buffer where greater meaning making at work was associated with weaker relations between work stress and the presence of meaning in life. None of the three components of meaningful work moderated the relation between work stress and the search for meaning in life. Practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Does the dark side of a calling exist? Examining potential negative effects

The present studies examined the potential dark side of perceiving and living a calling with diverse samples of employed adults. In Study 1, living a calling and life meaning were found to suppress the relation between perceiving a calling and life satisfaction, resulting in these variables being significantly, negatively related. This suggests that perceiving a calling may predict decreased well-being when it is not lived out and does not provide meaning. In Study 2, participants living a calling did not experience greater burnout, workaholism, or organizational exploitation. Additionally, counter to hypotheses, living a calling was found to be a significant buffer in the relation of burnout/exploitation and job satisfaction. Specifically, the slope of the relation between living a calling and job satisfaction was more pronounced with individuals experiencing high levels of burnout/exploitation. These findings suggest that living a calling may help individuals in difficult working conditions maintain job satisfaction.

Examining moderators of discrimination and subjective well-being among LGB individuals.

Research has found perceived discrimination to be a risk factor for mental health concerns among lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) people, but less clarity exists linking perceived discrimination with well-being outcomes. Building from Meyer’s (2003) minority stress model, the present study examined the links between perceived discrimination and the 3 components of subjective well-being: positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction. Self-esteem and stigma consciousness were explored as empirically and theoretically implied moderators. In a sample of 368 LGB people, structural equation modeling results suggested that discrimination was not significantly associated with positive affect or life satisfaction but had a significant positive relation with negative affect. Self-esteem moderated the associations between discrimination and positive and negative affect, and stigma consciousness moderated the link with negative affect. Practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.