Richard Pak

Effects of Aging on Efficiency of Task Switching in a Variant of the Trail Making Test

The Trail Making Test (TMT; R. M. Reitan, 1958, 1992) is extensively used in research in neuropsychology and in aging, in part because it has been postulated to reflect executive processes, such as planning and switching. However, neurocognitive and individual-difference-based analyses of this test are complicated because of different spatial arrangements of targets, the use of letters only in Version B, and potential order effects when Version A is administered prior to Version B. The present article examines a variant of a TMT (called the Connections Test) that attempts to remedy these deficiencies. A structural equation model suggested that there were no direct effects of age on either the nonalternating or alternating versions of the Connections Test (analogous to TMT Versions A and B, respectively); rather, all age-related effects were mediated through effects on perceptual speed. Moreover, although the nonalternating and alternating versions were strongly related to one another, only the latter had significant independent relations with measures of higher order cognition.

Touch a Screen or Turn a Knob: Choosing the Best Device for the Job

Input devices enable users to interact with systems. In two experiments, we assessed whether and how task demands and user age influenced task performance for a direct input device (touch screen) and an indirect input device (rotary encoder). In Experiment 1, 40 younger (18-28 years) and 40 middle-aged to older adults(51--65 years) performed tasks using controls such as sliders, up/down buttons, list boxes, and text boxes while using a system. The optimal input device to facilitate performance was dependent on the task being performed and the age of the user. In Experiment 2, touch screen use was assessed for 20 younger (19--23 years) and 20 older adults (51--70 years). Task demands were manipulated through button size, movement distance, direction, and type of movement. Performance was moderated by the age of the user and by task demands. Actual or potential applications of this research include guidance for the optimal selection of input devices for different user populations and task characteristics.

Designing displays for older adults

Introduction What Do Older Adults Want from Technology? What Do They do with Technology? Stereotypes of Older Users Universal Design What is a Display? Goals for the Book Accessibility Guidelines Overview of the Book Suggested Readings Vision How Vision Changes with Age Interim Summary Display Technologies In Practice: Presenting Information on the Web General Design Guidelines Suggested Readings Hearing How Hearing Changes With Age Interim Summary Accessibility Aids Interim Summary Human Language Interim Summary Designing Audio Displays In Practice: The Auditory Interface General Design Guidelines Suggested Readings Cognition How Cognition Changes With Age In Practice: Organization of Information General Design Guidelines Suggested Readings Movement How Movement Changes with Age Interim Summary Movement Disorders Accessibility Aids for Movement Control Interim Summary In Practice: Movement on a Display General Design Guidelines Suggested Readings Older Adults in the User-Centered Design Process How Testing Older Users is Different Requirements Gathering Evaluation/Inspection Designing/Prototyping/Implementing Alternate Designs Recruiting Summary Suggested Readings Preface to Usability Evaluations and Redesigns Organization of the Redesign Chapters Displays Chosen for Evaluation and Redesign Integrative Example: Mobile Phone Perceptual Concerns Cognitive Usability Assessment Specific Design Changes/ Summary Suggested Readings and References Integrative Example: Set Top Box Cognitive Concerns Perceptual Concerns Usability Assessment Specific Design Changes/Recommendations Summary Suggested Readings Integrative Example: Home Medical Device Cognitive Concerns Perceptual Concerns Movement Control and Input Usability Assessment Specific Design Changes/Recommendations Summary Suggested Readings Integrative Example: Automobile Displays Cognitive Concerns Perceptual Concerns Guidelines Movement Control and Input Devices Usability Assessment Specific Design Changes/Recommendations Summary Suggested Readings Conclusion Themes Important Future Goals Concluding Remarks

Age-Sensitive Design of Online Health Information: Comparative Usability Study

Background Older adults’ health maintenance may be enhanced by having access to online health information. However, usability issues may prevent older adults from easily accessing such information. Prior research has shown that aging is associated with a unique pattern of cognitive changes, and knowledge of these changes may be used in the design of health websites for older adults. Objective The goal of the current study was to examine whether older adults use of a health information website was affected by an alternative information architecture and access interface (hierarchical versus tag-based). Methods Fifty younger adults (aged 18-23) and 50 older adults (aged 60-80) navigated a health information website, which was organized hierarchically or used tags/keywords, to find answers to health-related questions while their performance was tracked. We hypothesized that older adults would perform better in the tag-based health information website because it placed greater demands on abilities that remain intact with aging (verbal ability and vocabulary). Results The pattern of age-related differences in computer use was consistent with prior research with older adults. We found that older adults had been using computers for less time (F 1,98= 10.6, P= .002) and used them less often (F 1,98= 11.3, P= .001) than younger adults. Also consistent with the cognitive aging literature, younger adults had greater spatial visualization and orientation abilities (F 1,98= 34.6, P< .001 and F 1,98= 6.8, P= .01) and a larger memory span (F 1,98= 5.7, P= .02) than older adults, but older adults had greater vocabulary (F 1,98= 11.4, P= .001). Older adults also took significantly more medications than younger adults (F 1,98= 57.7, P< .001). In the information search task, older adults performed worse than younger adults (F 1,96= 18.0, P< .001). However, there was a significant age × condition interaction indicating that while younger adults outperformed older adults in the hierarchical condition (F 1,96= 25.2, P< .001), there were no significant age-related differences in the tag-based condition, indicating that older adults performed as well as younger adults in this condition. Conclusions Access to online health information is increasing in popularity and can lead to a more informed health consumer. However, usability barriers may differentially affect older adults. The results of the current study suggest that the design of health information websites that take into account age-related changes in cognition can enhance older adults’ access to such information.

Spatial ability subfactors and their influences on a computer-based information search task

Objective: The present study examined the relationship between two distinct subfactors of spatial ability and performance in an information search task modeled on browsing the Web. Background: Previous studies have found relationships between various measures of spatial ability and performance in a wide variety of computerbased tasks. Method: In the search task 101 participants (18-29 years of age) searched for the answer to a question by navigating the system. They completed the experimental task as well as a battery of cognitive ability measures that included two different measures of spatial ability. Results: The results indicate that spatial orientation ability was related to performance with tasks that were high in their navigational requirement (engendered by the use of a novel aid), whereas spatial visualization was unrelated to performance in any task condition. Conclusion: A closer inspection of the cognitive requirements of a task may reveal what interventions could be most useful when designing computer systems or developing training programs. Application: Given the unique differences between the different spatial abilities, the current results suggest the design of navigational aids that place less demand on spatial orientation ability. Date received: March 4, 2004 Date accepted: December 27, 2004

The role of spatial abilities and age in performance in an auditory computer navigation task

Age-related differences in spatial ability have been suggested as a mediator of age-related differences in computer-based task performance. However, the vast majority of tasks studied have primarily used a visual display (e.g., graphical user interfaces). In the current study, the relationship between spatial ability and performance in a non-visual computer-based navigation task was examined in a sample of 196 participants ranging in age from 18 to 91. Participants called into a simulated interactive voice response system and carried out a variety of transactions. They also completed measures of attention, working memory, and spatial abilities. The results showed that age-related differences in spatial ability predicted a significant amount of variance in performance in the non-visual computer task, even after controlling for other abilities. Understanding the abilities that influence performance with technology may provide insight into the source of age-related performance differences in the successful use of technology.

Beyond a stereotyped view of older adults' traditional family values.

Structural equation models for predictors of traditional family values regarding relationships were examined in 2 samples: undergraduate students and adults ranging widely in age (23-86 years). Predictor variables included verbal ability, need for cognition, need for closure, intolerance for ambiguity, religiosity, and gender orientation. The models accounted for a substantial proportion of the variance in traditional family values (64% for students, 63% for adults). Findings provide little support for common stereotypes regarding age and gender differences in traditionalism. Instead, 3 individual-differences variables predicted traditional family values: need for closure, religiosity, and verbal ability. Outcomes argue for the need to identify multiple mechanisms by which personal characteristics such as need for closure and religiosity influence traditionalism in social belief systems and argue against reliance on status variables such as age and gender as explanatory variables for these beliefs.

Older adults' perceptions of usefulness of personal health records

Electronic personal health records (PHRs) have the potential to both make health information more accessible to patients and function as a decision-support system for patients managing chronic conditions. Age-related changes in cognition may make traditional strategies of integrating and understanding existing (i.e., paper-based) health information more difficult for older adults. The centralized and integrated nature of health information, as well as the long-term tracking capabilities present in many PHRs, may be especially beneficial for older patients’ management of health. However, older adults tend to be late adopters of technology and may be hesitant to adopt a PHR if the benefits are not made clear (perceived usefulness). Toward the design of a useful PHR, a needs analysis was conducted to determine how people currently manage their health information, what they perceive as useful, and to identify any unmet needs. This paper describes two qualitative studies examining the health information needs of both younger and older adults. The first study used a 2-week diary methodology to examine everyday health questions or concerns, while the second study examined maintenance of health information and perceptions of PHRs through the use of a three-part interview. User’s perceptions of the usefulness of PHRs are provided as recommendations for the design of e-health technology, especially those targeted for older adult healthcare consumers. The results suggest that both older and younger adults would deem a PHR useful if it provides memory support in the form of reminders, provides tools to aid in comprehension of one’s health concerns, is interactive and provides automatic functions, and is highly accessible to authorized users, yet one’s information is kept secure and private.

Does the domain of technology impact user trust? Investigating trust in automation across different consumer-oriented domains in young adults, military, and older adults

ABSTRACT Trust has been shown to be a determinant of automation usage and reliance. Thus, understanding the factors that affect trust in automation has been a focus of much research. Despite the increased appearance of automation in consumer-oriented domains, the majority of research examining human-automation trust has occurred in highly specialised domains (e.g. flight management, military) and with specific user groups. We investigated trust in technology across three different groups (young adults, military, and older adults), four domains (consumer electronics, banking, transportation, and health), two stages of automation (information and decision automation), and two levels of automation reliability (low and high). Our findings suggest that trust varies on an interaction of domain of technology, reliability, stage, and user group.

Selective attention as a protagonist in contemporary workplace stress: implications for the interruption age

Background and Objectives: The ubiquity of instant messages and email notifications in contemporary work environments has opened a Pandoras Box. This box is filled with countless interruptions coming from laptops, smartphones, and other devices, all of which constantly call for employees’ attention. In this interruption era, workplace stress is a pervasive problem. To examine this problem, the present study hypothesizes that the three-way interaction among the frequency with which interrupting stimuli appear, their salience, and employees’ deficits in inhibiting attentional responses to them impacts mental workload perceptions, ultimately leading to stress. The study, further, probes a related form of self-efficacy as a potential suppressor of interruption-based stress. Design: The study used a 2 (low vs. high frequency) × 2 (low vs. high salience) mixed model design. Methods: The 128 subjects completed a test of their inhibitory deficits and rated their mental workload perceptions and experiences of stress following a computer-based task. Results: Inhibitory deficits and increased interruption salience can alter the perception of mental workload in contemporary work environments for the worse, but interruption self-efficacy can help offset any resulting interruption-based stress. Conclusions: This study extends the literatures on work interruptions as well as on stress and coping in the workplace.