Richard W. Brislin

Back-Translation for Cross-Cultural Research:

Two aspects of translation were investigated: (1) factors that affect translation quality, and (2) how equivalence between source and target versions can be evaluated. The variables of language, content, and difficulty were studied through an analysis of variance design. Ninety-four bilinguals from the University of Guam, representing ten languages, translated or back-translated six essays incorporating three content areas and two levels of difficulty. The five criteria for equivalence were based on comparisons of meaning or predictions of similar responses to original or translated versions. The factors of content, difficulty, language and content-language interaction were significant, and the five equivalence criteria proved workable. Conclusions are that translation quality can be predicted, and that a functionally equivalent translation can be demonstrated when responses to the original and target versions are studied.

Cross-Cultural Research Methods

Cross-cultural studies are necessary for the complete development of theories in environmental research since no one culture contains all environmental conditions that can affect human behavior. Likewise, no one country contains all possible types of man-made changes of the physical environment, nor all of the man-made adaptations to natural conditions such as climate, noise, air quality, and potential hazards. In addition, many places in which environmental researchers might be asked to work are in parts of the world where “development” is seen as a necessity or at least a desideratum. These places are often in countries where empirical research is not a well-established entity, hence the necessity for importing advisers from other countries. Although frequently forgotten (Fahvar & Milton, 1972), environmental assessments prepared by such advisers should include analyses of how a development project will affect a culture and even the behavior of people for whom the project was designed.

Applied cross-cultural psychology

Applied Cross-Cultural Psychology - Richard W Brislin An Introduction Theoretical Concepts that are Applicable to the Analysis of Ethnocentrism - Harry C Triandis An Overview of Cross-Cultural Testing and Assessment - Walter J Lonner Interventions for Development Out of Poverty - Durganand Sinha Cross-Cultural Psychology and the Formal Classroom - Kenneth Cushner Family and Home-Based Intervention - Cigdem Kagitcibasi Indigenous Psychology - Uichol Kim Science and Applications International Students - R Michael Paige Cross-Cultural Psychological Perspectives Work Attitudes, Leadership Styles, and Managerial Behaviors in Different Cultures - C Harry Hui Dispute Processing - Kwonk Leung and Pei-Guan Wu A Cross-Cultural Analysis Psychology of Acculturation - John W Berry Understanding Individuals Moving Between Cultures The Environment, Culture, and Behavior - Janek Pandey Culture and Health - Lisa Marie Ilola Applications of Cross-Cultural Psychology in the Field of Mental Health - Juris G Draguns Cross-Cultural Orientation Programs - D P S Bhawuk

Comparative Research Methodology: Cross-Cultural Studies

Abstract Cross-cultural research can make contributions to theory development by identifying groups of people who seem not to behave according to established theories and by increasing the range of independent variables available for study in any one culture. A major methodological orientation to such studies, developed over the last 10 years, is the emic-etic distinction. An emic analysis documents valid principles that describe behavior in any one culture, taking into account what the people themselves value as meaningful and important. The goal of an etic analysis is to make generalizations across cultures that take into account all human behavior. Examples of these approaches are given from studies on ingroup-outgroup relations in Greece and the United States; and studies on the need for achievement and its relation to the need for affiliation. A specific method to document emic and etic principles is presented which involves the development of core items to measure concerns in all cultures under stud...

The measurement of intercultural sensitivity using the concepts of individualism and collectivism

Abstract Intercultural sensitivity is a concept that is frequently viewed as important in both theoretical analyses of peoples adjustment to other cultures and in applied programs to prepare people to live and work effectively in cultures other than their own. Attempts to measure this concept have not always been successful, and one reason is that researchers and practitioners have not specified exactly what people should be sensitive to when they find themselves in other cultures. In the present study, scales were designed to measure intercultural sensitivity by examining (a) peoples understanding of the different ways they can behave depending upon whether they are interacting in an individualistic or a collectivist culture, (b) their open-mindedness concerning the differences they encounter in other cultures, and (c) their flexibility concerning behaving in unfamiliar ways that are called upon by the norms of other cultures. A 46-item Intercultural Sensitivity Inventory (ICSI) was developed and tested among participants at the East-West Center in Hawaii and among graduate students in an MBA program who were contemplating careers in international business. The scoring of the items dealing with individualism and collectivism was different than for most measuring instruments. People indicated whether they would engage in certain behaviors (e.g., disagreeing with others openly) in an individualistic country such as the United States, and whether they would engage in the same behavior in a collectivistic country such as Japan. This allowed scoring based on peoples sensitivity to the different behaviors considered appropriate in the two types of cultures. Results indicated that the instrument had adequate reliability (r = .84 for the East-West Center sample) and validity. People with high scores on the ICSI instrument were chosen as most able to interact effectively across cultures by a panel of experts; enjoyed working on complex tasks that demanded extensive intercultural interaction; enjoyed engaging in other intercultural activities such as eating different ethnic foods; and had spent long periods of time (more than three years) living in another culture. A factor analysis of ICSI showed that the concepts of individualism and collectivism as envisioned by previous researchers (e.g., Triandis, Hofstede, Schwartz) were constructs that people used in thinking about behavior in their own and other cultures. A practical conclusion for the content of cross-cultural training programs is that people can be encouraged to modify specific behaviors so that they are appropriate to the culture in which they find themselves and so that they will have a greater chance of achieving their goals.

Cultural Intelligence: Understanding Behaviors that Serve People’s Goals

Cultural intelligence has various meanings that can be looked on as complementary. On one hand, it refers to behaviors that are considered intelligent from the point of view of people in specific cultures. Such behaviors can include quick application of previously learned information in some cultures, getting along with kin in other cultures, and slow and deliberate consideration of alternative courses of action in still other cultures. On the other hand, cultural intelligence can also refer to the traits and skills of people who adjust quickly, with minimal stress, when they interact extensively in cultures other than the ones where they were socialized. The two uses of the term are related because people who want to be sensitive to other scan examine intelligence as it is defined and demonstrated in other cultures and can make adjustments in their own behaviors during their cross-cultural experiences.

Cross-cultural Training: A Review

Dans cet article, nous suivons l’e´volution des concepts qui font partie de la litte´rature de ces 50 dernie`res anne´es sur la formation trans-culturelle en passant en revue quelques e´tudes qui ont fait date. Apre`s avoir de´battu des recherches et pratiques au fil des de´cennies, nous poursuivons en identifiant les grands courrants de recherche dans ce domaine et nous livrons a` quelques conjonctures suppositions sur les directions qui peuvent etre prises dans l’avenir.

Cultural Diversity in People's Understanding and Uses of Time

La mondialisation et les projets commerciaux internationaux mettent frequemment en relation des personnes relevant de cultures differentes. Hall soutient que la gestion du temps est un ‘langage silencieux’ qui affecte les conduites quiotidiennes. Les auteurs ont retenu dix concepts resumant l’impact de la culture sur les contact interculturels qui sont l’un des aspects des negociations dans les affaires internationales: 1. Le temps de l’horloge et celui de l’evenement: respecte-t-on des programmes preetablis ou laisse-t-on l’evenement suivre son cours naturel avant de passer a un autre evenement? 2. La ponctualite: quel est le degre de sensibilite au non respect des horaires convenus? 3. La relation entre la tâche et le temps social pendant la journee de travail; 4. Se consacre-t-on a une seule activitea la fois ou a plusieurs en meme temps? 5. Efficience vs efficacite; 6. Un rythme de vie lent ou acceler; 7. Comment reagit-on aux longues periodes de silence? 8. Est-on plutot tourne vers le passe, le present ou l’avenir? 9. La dimension symbolique due temps; 10. L’importance respective du temps consacre au travail et aus loisirs. En s’appuyant sur ces dix concepts, les auteurs suggerent quelques idees aux hommes d’affaires qui voyagent beaucoup dans des environnements culturels differents du leur et qui accepteur des sejours de longue duree dans l’autres pays. The global economy and international business ventures have brought many occasions for the development of interpersonal relationships among people who were socialised into different cultures. Peoples use of time, according to Hall, is a “silent language” that affects their everyday behaviors. The authors identify ten concepts that summarise how culture affects intercultural interactions that are part of international business dealings: 1. Clock and event time: Do people follow set schedules or let the event take its natural course before moving to another event? 2. Punctuality: How sensitive are people to deviations from appointed times? 3. The relation between task and social time during the workday; 4. Whether people do one activity at a time or do many at once; 5. Efficiency vs. effectiveness; 6. Fast and slow paces of life; 7. How people deal with long periods of silence; 8. Peoples time orientation: past, present and the future; 9. The symbolic meaning of time; 10. Cultural differences in importance of work and leisure time. The authors also provide insights based on these ten concepts for business people who travel extensively to other cultures and who accept long-term assignments in other countries.

Non-Random Sampling of Individualsin Cross-Cultural Research

Although true random samples are necessary for the successful completion of some research projects, studies using non-random samples can also be valuable. Research using non-random samples can be improved, however, and our recommendation is for a more careful description of them, to appear in methodology sections of published research. This practice has three purposes: (1) It will allow other researchers to choose their samples with more precision. (2) Careful description allows others to combine various sets of data into a functional relation. (3) It allows others to evaluate the plausible rival hypotheses that may threaten a studys validity. Suggestions for the content of a sample description are given.

A culture general assimilator: Preparation for various types of sojourns

Abstract A set of training materials has been developed which can form the basis of various cross-cultural orientation programs. The materials can be used no matter what peoples role in other countries (e.g., businessperson, foreign students, diplomats) or their country of assignment. Further, the materials can be used with people who have extensive interaction with members of minority groups within their own country, such as cross-cultural counsellors or social workers who interact frequently with refugees and immigrants. Since the materials are based on 100 critical incidents and presented in a manner similar to existing culture assimilators, the newly developed set of materials is called a “culture general assimilator.” The materials are based on the assumption that there are commonalities, or similar personal experiences, when people live and work in cultures other than their own. These shared experiences, sometimes negative and sometimes positive, form the basis of the phenomenon known as culture shock, as well as opportunities for learning and personal development frequently reported by so-journers. The commonalities form the basis of the 100 critical incidents, which include such concepts as anxiety, disconfirmed expectancies, the ingroup-outgroup distinction, confrontation with ones prejudices, and attributions about the behavior of others. The 100 incidents were derived from conclusions about cross-cultural experiences found in the published literature, the experiences of the four people involved in the materials development, and from interviews with colleagues. The methods of developing the assimilator are reviewed, including the step during which 60 people with extensive cross-cultural experiences validated the incidents. Sample incidents are presented, and suggestions are made for use of the materials in culture-specific training programs, undergraduate college classes, professionals who work with a multicultural clientele, and study abroad participants returning to their home country.