Riina Antikainen

Forest bioenergy climate impact can be improved by allocating forest residue removal

Bioenergy from forest residues can be used to avoid fossil carbon emissions, but removing biomass from forests reduces carbon stock sizes and carbon input to litter and soil. The magnitude and longevity of these carbon stock changes determine how effective measures to utilize bioenergy from forest residues are to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the energy sector and to mitigate climate change. In this study, we estimate the variability of GHG emissions and consequent climate impacts resulting from producing bioenergy from stumps, branches and residual biomass of forest thinning operations in Finland, and the contribution of the variability in key factors, i.e. forest residue diameter, tree species, geographical location of the forest biomass removal site and harvesting method, to the emissions and their climate impact. The GHG emissions and the consequent climate impacts estimated as changes in radiative forcing were comparable to fossil fuels when bioenergy production from forest residues was initiated. The emissions and climate impacts decreased over time because forest residues were predicted to decompose releasing CO2 even if left in the forest. Both were mainly affected by forest residue diameter and climatic conditions of the forest residue collection site. Tree species and the harvest method of thinning wood (whole tree or stem‐only) had a smaller effect on the magnitude of emissions. The largest reduction in the energy production climate impacts after 20 years, up to 62%, was achieved when coal was replaced by the branches collected from Southern Finland, whereas the smallest reduction 7% was gained by using stumps from Northern Finland instead of natural gas. After 100 years the corresponding values were 77% and 21%. The choice of forest residue biomass collected affects significantly the emissions and climate impacts of forest bioenergy.

Land use indicators in life cycle assessment

PurposeInclusion of land use-related environmental aspects into LCA methodology has been under active development in recent years. Although many indicators have been developed and proposed for different aspects of land use (climate change, biodiversity, resource depletion and soil quality), many of indicators have, as yet, not been tested and compared in LCA applications. The aim of this study is to test the different LCIA indicators in practice in a case study of beer production.Materials and methodsNine different indicators were selected to represent three different impact endpoints of land use: resource depletion, soil quality and biodiversity. The beer production system included all life cycle stages from barley cultivation and the production of energy and raw materials to the serving of beer at restaurant. Several optional system expansions were studied to estimate the possible impacts of substituting feed protein (soybean, rapeseed and silage) with mash coproduct from brewing. A comparison with wine production was also made for illustrative purposes.Results and discussionThe majority of the land use impacts occurred in the cultivation phase, but significant impacts were also found far down the supply chain. The system expansions influenced the overall results markedly, especially for land transformation, soil organic carbon (SOC) and several of the biodiversity indicators. Most of the land use indicators led to results that were consistent with each other. In the inventory and impact assessment phase, challenges were faced in obtaining reliable data. Additionally, the lack of reliable, regional characterization factors limits the usability of the land use indicators and the reliability of the LCIA results, especially of the SOC indicator. None of the studied indicators fulfills all the criteria for an effective ecological indicator, but most have many positive features.ConclusionsAll tested land use indicators were applicable in LCIA. Some indicators were found to be highly sensitive to assumptions on land transformation, which sets high requirements for LCI data quality. Scarcity of land use LCI data sources limits validation and cross-comparison. Interpretation of indicator results is complicated due to the limited understanding of the environmental impact pathways of land use.RecommendationsNone of the tested indicators describes the full range of environmental impacts caused by land use. We recommend presenting land occupation and transformation LCI results, the ecological footprint and at least one of the biodiversity indicators. Regarding soil quality, the lack of reliable regional data currently limits application of the proposed methods. The criteria of effective ecological indicators should be reflected in further work in indicator development. Development of regionalized characterization factors is of key importance to include land use in LCA.

Flows of nitrogen and phosphorus in municipal waste: a substance flow analysis in Finland

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are two nutrients contributing to several environmental problems, particularly eutrophication of surface waters. Leakages of these nutrients occur through human activity. In this study, the flows of N and P in the Finnish municipal waste system in 1952–1999 were determined and analysed using substance flow analysis (SFA). Nutrient flows in both wastewaters and solid waste peaked in 1990, after which they declined until 1994 but thereafter increased again although remaining lower than in 1990. At the end of the 1990s the wastewater and solid waste from municipalities and rural households contained ca. 7.0 kg N person-1 a-1 and 1.1 kg P person-1 a-1. Untreated wastewater contained three times more N and four times more P than solid waste. The amounts of N and P involved in recycling increased over the study period being 10% for N and 50% for P at the end of the 1990s.

Eco-efficiency in contaminated land management in Finland – Barriers and development needs

In Finland the number of potentially contaminated sites totals ca. 20 000. The annual costs of remediation are 60-70 million euros. Excavation combined with disposal or off-site treatment is the most common soil remediation method. To define which factors make contaminated land management (CLM) eco-efficient and to study whether eco-efficiency has been considered in CLM decisions we carried out a literature survey, two stakeholder seminars, thematic interviews and a questionnaire study on economic instruments. Generally speaking, eco-efficiency means gaining environmental benefits with fewer resources. To assess its realization in CLM, it is necessary to have a more specific definition. In our study, we arrived at a list of several qualifications for eco-efficiency. It was also shown that eco-efficiency has hardly been a real issue in the selection of remediation techniques or generally, in the decision-making concerning contaminated sites. The existing policy instruments seem to be insufficient to promote eco-efficiency in CLM. Several concrete barriers to eco-efficiency also came up, urgency and lack of money being the most important. The scarcity of the use of in situ remediation methods and the difficulties involved in recycling slightly contaminated or treated soil were considered to be major problems. Insufficient site studies, inadequate or unsuitable methods for risk assessment and cost evaluation, and deficient and mistimed risk communication can also hinder the realization of eco-efficiency. Hence, there is a need to promote the use of more eco-efficient remediation techniques and to develop CLM policy instruments, guidelines, and participatory processes and methods to assess the eco-efficiency of CLM options.

Measuring eco-efficiency of contaminated soil management at the regional level

Eco-efficiency and sustainable development are the key environmental topics and goals for todays society that we should strive for in all activities, including contaminated soil management (CSM). However, particularly at the regional level, CSM is studied to a lesser extent from this perspective and practical means to monitor and assess sustainability or eco-efficiency are not widely available. This study aims to fill this gap by developing indicators to measure and monitor the development of regional eco-efficiency of CSM. The indicators can be used to support decision-making at the regional level since many CSM decisions, such as prioritisation of sites and the number of soil treatment and storing facilities, are made regionally. To start with, we surveyed the methods available for determining eco-efficiency and suitable indicators to monitor and measure the development of CSM regionally. We used life cycle analysis (LCA) and material flow analysis (MFA) to identify factors that the environmental indicators should cover, and also involved economic indicators. We ended up with a selection of 28 indicators, which can be classed into three different categories: background indicators, environmental indicators and economic indicators. We further demonstrated the use of the indicators by applying data from three different regions in Finland, and evaluated their suitability. On the basis of the results we recommended 15 indicators for continuous follow-up and decision-making purposes. Even though these indicators are suitable for monitoring and measuring the eco-efficiency of CSM at the regional level, unfortunately we found several data gaps related to the actual remediation projects which impede their use in practice. The data collection practices therefore need to be regionally developed.

Sustainability assessment tools – their comprehensiveness and utilisation in company-level sustainability assessments in Finland

ABSTRACT Companies have a central role in the transition towards more sustainable economic systems, as they are one of the major sources of environmental impacts, economic activity and social development. Various tools are available to support sustainability assessments, but there is little information on how suitable they are for company-level assessments and how companies use them in real-life applications. The article examines some of the commonly used tools and the utilisation of these tools in Finnish companies. A sample of seven tools was compiled: multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA), material flow analysis, life cycle assessment (LCA), input–output models, sustainability indicators and indices, cost–benefit analysis (CBA) and optimisation methods. MCDA, LCA, CBA and optimisation methods were found to be successful with respect to many of the criteria used in the evaluation, but none of them was comprehensive. The assessment indicates that MCDA has the greatest potential to be successfully applied to support sustainability assessment, but solely applying MCDA is not suggested, since MCDA needs input from other tools and methods, in order to have reliable impact assessments. Finnish companies regularly employ sustainability criteria and indices, and a few construction companies had applied LCA, but utilisation of other tools was rare. The findings indicate that the tools frequently discussed in research are not actually used by companies. Expert-driven sustainability trials and user-friendly, simplified tools could be a solution to issues of accessibility in real-world applications.

Developing a Model for Long-Distance Freight Emissions and Energy Consumption

The FORESIGHT process required many quantitative estimates, which were not available for long-distance freight transport. Current emission inventories, impacts of forecasts, and previously published scenarios report usually total transport emissions, without focusing specifically on long-distance freight. Since detailed statistics were unavailable, a quantitative model was developed to estimate the figures from existing data. The model was used to estimate the emissions and energy consumption of future transport systems described in the business-as-usual forecasts and in the backcasts. This chapter describes the model structure and parameterization, with an emphasis on the use of the model to estimate the current status of the freight transport system in 2005.

Circular Economy: Origins and Future Orientations

The circular economy is increasingly attracting the attention of various actors in Europe and globally. It refers to closing material loops and prolonging the lifetime of materials; and, as such, presents a radically different socio-technological future compared to the unsustainable conventional ‘take-make-dispose’ economic model. The concepts underpinning the circular economy are not new, and ecological economics, environmental economics and industrial ecology have been highlighted as its significant antecedents. The circular economy requires involvement of all the societal actors: companies, which bring new circular economy business models; consumers, who create the demand for products and services that apply circular economy principles and decision makers, who support the transition with ‘better’ policy instruments and governance. The circular economy is expected to bring multiple benefits to the environment and the economy, but only a few examples have demonstrated the circular economy’s potential economic benefits for industrial actors. This chapter provides an overview of the concepts, principles, expectations, strategies, business models, indicators and future trends connected to the circular economy.

Promoting Public Procurement of Sustainable Innovations: Approaches for Effective Market Dialogue

Public procurement of innovation (PPI) can promote the quality and efficiency of public services.