Robert B. Rutherford

Youth with Disabilities in Juvenile Corrections: A National Survey

Improving our knowledge of the number of incarcerated youth with disabilities can assist educators, other professionals, and policymakers to develop more effective services for youth. This article reports the findings of a national survey conducted to determine the number of youth identified as having disabilities in the juvenile corrections systems in the United States. The data show that, when compared to the national average, there is an overrepresentation of students identified as having disabilities, especially emotional disturbance, in those systems.

A Meta-Analysis of Social Skill Interventions for Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders

Many programs designed for children and youth with emotional or behavioral disorders (EBD) include a social skill training component. Using quantitative methods of meta-analysis, the findings from 35 studies investigating the effects of social skill interventions for students with EBD were synthesized. The pooled mean effect size (ES) was 0.199, from which the average student with EBD would be expected to gain a modest eight percentile ranks on outcome measures after participating in a social skill training program. Studies were further grouped and analyzed according to different variables (e.g., similarities of the intervention, participants, and assessment procedures). Slightly greater ESs were found for interventions that focused on teaching and measuring specific social skills (e.g., cooperating, or social problem solving) compared to more global interventions. Several pertinent issues for reviewing the results of this research synthesis are addressed.

Social Skills Interventions with Students with Emotional and Behavioral Problems: A Quantitative Synthesis of Single-Subject Research:

Sixty-four single-subject studies examining the effectiveness of social skills interventions with students with emotional or behavioral problems were included in this synthesis. The results of quantitative synthesis procedures using percentage of nonoverlapping data suggest that social skills interventions have limited empirical support for their overall effectiveness. Implications for future social skills research and quantitative analysis methodology are discussed.

Has public policy exceeded our knowledge base? A review of the functional behavioral assessment literature

The 1997 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandate that schools evaluate, through the process of a functional behavioral assessment, students with disabilities who are exhibiting significant behavior problems that lead to suspension and expulsion. We examined the literature on functional behavioral assessment according to external validity and assessment with regard to its cost-benefits (i.e., its effectiveness relative to other approaches, time, and effort). The results indicate that although functional behavioral assessment has shown promise for youth and adults with low-incidence disabilities in clinical settings, evidence regarding its effectiveness when applied to youth with both low- and high-incidence disabilities in school settings is limited. There appears to be no research that has examined the cost-benefits of functional behavioral assessment. Future research needs are discussed.

SElf-Graphing of On-Task Behavior: Enhancing the Reactive Effects of Self-Monitoring on On-Task Behavior and Academic Performance:

This study investigated the effects of self-graphing on improving the reactivity of self-monitoring procedures for two students with learning disabilities. Differential effects of self-evaluation and self-reinforcement were assessed along with self-monitoring and self-graphing using a single-case multiple-treatment design. Subjects self-monitored and self-graphed their on-task behavior. Measures of academic arithmetic performance (productivity and accuracy) were collected simultaneously. For both students, on-task behavior and academic performance improved during self-monitoring, with additional increases due to self-graphing. However, little improvement in on-task behavior and academic productivity was noted with the introduction of self-reinforcement and self-evaluation, although academic accuracy increased slightly for both. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Special Education in the Most Restrictive Environment: Correctional/Special Education

National attention recently has focused on the problems of delivering special education services to incarcerated youthful handicapped offenders. In this article, data from a national survey of state departments of correctional and special education relative to the need for, and provision of, these services are presented. Issues relative to the compliance of correctional education programs with the PL 94-142 mandate are discussed and recommendations for improving educational experiences for handicapped youths under the supervision of the criminal justice system are offered.

Is Social Skills Training Effective for Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders? Research Issues and Needs.

The purpose of this paper is to identify and discuss the factors that may influence the long-term effectiveness of social skills training. Potential impediments to the success of social skills training include: lack of a sound conceptual framework, questionable social validity of target skills, controversies surrounding the nature of social skills deficits, imprecision in assessment procedures, vagueness in description of interventions, inattention to contextual factors, and failure to achieve generalization.

Do Public Schools Have an Obligation to Serve Troubled Children and Youth

The exclusion of pupils considered socially maladjusted in the Public Law 94–142 definition of seriously emotionally disturbed has led to gaps in services to a population of schoolchildren having significant educational needs. Issues related to this exclusionary clause are discussed in light of current research evidence and school practices. Considerable support exists for the position that the exclusion of these students from special education and related services is neither logical not valid. A broader perspective is advocated, in which the needs of antisocial students (and their families) are addressed through early intervention for at-risk pupils, as well as in appropriate special education programs.

Transition of Incarcerated Youth With Disabilities Across Systems and Into Adulthood.

Identifying factors that contribute to delinquency and recidivism is critical in predicting the success of incarcerated youth transitioning back to the community. The task of identifying these salient factors becomes increasingly complex when compounded by the disproportionate representation of youth with disabilities in juvenile corrections. These youth are also far less likely to make a successful transition to the community. Research in this area has examined the impact of individual, environmental, and situational factors on the likelihood for success, but a synthesis of this research has yet to be compiled. The purpose of this article is to examine the contextual factors that influence the transition success or failure of youth with disabilities in the juvenile justice system. Specifically, 10 research studies conducted by graduate students and faculty in the special education program at Arizona State University are reviewed. This research has been conducted over the past 12 years and has focused on identifying factors associated with successful and unsuccessful transition of youth from incarceration to school, work, and the community. Implications for designing and implementing appropriate programming and transition planning to address the needs of youth exiting the correctional system are also highlighted. The specific research topics related to transition include preplacement planning, locus of control, engagement, peer influence, quality of transition programming, gender specific programming, and adult mentoring and support.

Right Reason in the Integration of Group and Single-Subject Research in Behavioral Disorders.

In this discussion of quantitative research synthesis (meta-analysis), past criticisms of meta-analysis are reviewed along with the ways in which they have been addressed. The problems associated with synthesizing single-subject research are discussed, particularly the difficulties in obtaining a metric equivalent to the effect size calculated for group-design research. After analyzing recommended approaches, the authors endorse the percentage-of-nonoverlapping-data metric. Their earlier single-subject synthesis showing limited efficacy for social skills instruction is then reviewed. The findings are discussed in relation to the nature of single-subject research, the proper role of research integration, and the influence of subjectivity in interpreting research findings. Finally, possible reasons for disappointing findings regarding the effectiveness of social skills instruction are explored. The authors conclude that, until expressed concerns are remedied, it is neither incorrect nor illogical to question the efficacy of social skills instruction.