Robert C. Janaway

Decomposition of Human Remains

Early scientific research into ‘‘putrefaction’’ by eighteenth centuryphysicianswasdriven by a need to understand and treat living patients who were suffering from ‘‘putrid diseases’’ (presumably conditions such as treponemal disease, non-specific osteomyelitus, bacterial skin infections, abscesses, and the like, which could result in the formation of necrotic tissue, but which today can be treated by modern medicine). But these works clearly recognized and tried to seek explanation to some of the fundamental microbially induced changes in the human body, in particular, to soft tissue that occur during different stages in the decomposition process and which result in pH change, and the evolution of volatile compounds. As such, these works are an early precursor to the discipline that today we know as ‘‘taphonomy’’. This term, originally coined by the Russian palaeontologist Ivan Efremov to describe the ‘‘transformations from the biosphere to the lithosphere’’ in explaining the formation of fossils, today has much broader meaning. The term has been widely adopted in archaeology and forensic science and is concerned with the decomposition of the body and associated death scene materials. As such, the disciplines of archaeological taphonomy/diagenesis and forensic taphonomy cover the location of buried or disturbed human remains and time since death/burial estimation, and explain the survival/differential decomposition of physical remains and macromolecules such as proteins, lipids, and DNA. Death may be defined under two categories: somatic and cellular death. In somatic death, while the person has lost sentient personality, reflex nervous activity often persists. In cellular death, the cells of the body no longer function, cease to exhibit metabolic activity, and cannot function by means of aerobic respiration. Understanding the distinction between somatic and cellular death is important when considering physiological changes that occur immediately after death, when, for

Selective biodegradation in hair shafts derived from archaeological, forensic and experimental contexts

Background  Hair is degraded by the action of both dermatophytic and nondermatophytic microorganisms. The importance of understanding hair sample condition in archaeological and forensic investigation highlights the need for a detailed knowledge of the sequence of degradation in samples that have been either buried or left exposed at the ground surface.

Fourier transform Raman spectroscopy: evaluation as a non‐destructive technique for studying the degradation of human hair from archaeological and forensic environments

Fourier transform (FT) Raman spectroscopy was evaluated as a non-destructive analytical tool for assessing the degradative state of archaeological and forensic hair samples. This work follows the successful application of FT-Raman spectroscopy to studies of both modern hair and ancient keratotic biopolymers, such as mummified skin. Fourteen samples of terminal scalp hair from 13 disparate depositional environments were analysed for evidence of structural alteration. Degradative change was evidenced by alteration to the amide I and III modes near 1651 and 1128 cm−1, respectively, and loss of definition to the (CC) skeletal backbone and the impact of environmental contaminants was noted. Copyright

Preliminary Study of the Application of Fourier Transform Raman Spectroscopy to the Analysis of Degraded Archaeological Linen Textiles

A preliminary investigation of the novel application of Fourier transform Raman spectroscopy to the non-destructive analysis of archaeological fabrics is illustrated with linen samples from two sites, one a mummy-wrapping from a XIIth Dynastic Egyptian rock tomb burial (ca. 1900 BC) and the other some cloth from a mass grave at Kasr-el-Yahud, near Jericho in the Dead Sea region (AD 614). Comparison of the spectra with that of pure cotton, another cellulose-based natural fibre, was effected and a distinction between the two was demonstrated. The samples were not pretreated chemically before analysis, and were used directly from their respective storage collections.

Long-term effects of hydrated lime and quicklime on the decay of human remains using pig cadavers as human body analogues: Field experiments

An increased number of police enquiries involving human remains buried with lime have demonstrated the need for more research into the effect of different types of lime on cadaver decomposition and its micro-environment. This study follows previous studies by the authors who have investigated the effects of lime on the decay of human remains in laboratory conditions and 6 months of field experiments. Six pig carcasses (Sus scrofa), used as human body analogues, were buried without lime with hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) and quicklime (CaO) in shallow graves in sandy-loam soil in Belgium and recovered after 17 and 42 months of burial. Analysis of the soil, lime and carcasses included entomology, pH, moisture content, microbial activity, histology and lime carbonation. The results of this study demonstrate that despite conflicting evidence in the literature, the extent of decomposition is slowed down by burial with both hydrated lime and quicklime. The more advanced the decay process, the more similar the degree of liquefaction between the limed and unlimed remains. The end result for each mode of burial will ultimately result in skeletonisation. This study has implications for the investigation of clandestine burials, for a better understanding of archaeological plaster burials and potentially for the interpretation of mass graves and management of mass disasters by humanitarian organisation and DVI teams.

Characterization of paint and varnish on a medieval Coptic-Byzantine icon: Novel usage of dammar resin

A comprehensive study has been undertaken into a 13th century Coptic-Byzantine icon from the St. Mercurius Church, St. Mercurius monastery, Old Cairo, Egypt. The layered structure, pigment composition and varnish identification were revealed by means of optical and Raman microscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The structure of the icon comprised six layers; wooden panel, canvas, white ground, two bole layers and a single paint layer. Azurite (2CuCO(3) x Cu(OH)(2)), cinnabar (mercuric (II) sulfide alpha-HgS), yellow ochre (Fe(2)O(3) x H(2)O), hydromagnesite Mg(5)(CO(3))(4)(OH)(2) x 4 H(2)O and lamp black (carbon, C) are the pigments identified in the icon. The green paint area is of interest as it is applied neither with a green pigment nor with a mixture of a blue and yellow pigment. Instead, a yellow layer of dammar resin was applied on top of blue azurite to obtain the green colour. Pinaceae sp. resin mixed with drying oil was used as a protective varnish.

Fourier-transform Raman spectroscopic study of a Neolithic waterlogged wood assemblage.

The use of Fourier-transform Raman spectroscopy for characterising lignocellulosics has increased significantly over the last twenty years. Here, an FT-Raman spectroscopic study of changes in the chemistry of waterlogged archaeological wood of Pinus sp. and Quercus sp. from a prehistoric assemblage recovered from northern Greece is presented. FT-Raman spectral features of biodeteriorated wood were associated with the depletion of lignin and/or carbohydrate polymers at various stages of deterioration. Spectra from the archaeological wood are presented alongside spectra of sound wood of the same taxa. A comparison of the relative changes in intensities of spectral bands associated with lignin and carbohydrates resulting from decay clearly indicated extensive deterioration of both the softwood and hardwood samples and the carbohydrates appear to be more deteriorated than the lignin. The biodeterioration of the archaeological timbers followed a pattern of initial preferential loss of carbohydrates causing significant loss of cellulose and hemicellulose, followed by the degradation of lignin.

Forensic archaeology in Britain

Forensic archaeology is a relatively recent development in the UK but has already shown its worth on a number of scenes of crime; it has a particular role to play in the location and recovery of buried remains, notably in homicide investigations. This paper explores the overlap between archaeology and criminal investigation and considers areas of mutual interest, experience and potential.

Taphonomic Changes to the Buried Body in Arid Environments: An Experimental Case Study in Peru

Despite an increasing literature on the decomposition of buried and exposed human remains it is important to recognise that specific microenviron-ments will either trigger, or delay the rate of decomposition. Recent casework in arid regions of the world has indicated a need for a more detailed understanding of the effects of burial over relatively short timescales. The decomposition of buried human remains in the coastal desert of Peru was investigated using pig cadavers (Sus scrofa) as body analogues. The project aims were to specifically examine the early phases of natural mummification and contrast the effects of direct burial in ground with burial in a tomb structure (i.e. with an air void). Temperature was logged at hourly intervals from both the surface, grave fill and core body throughout the experiment. In addition, air temperature and humidity were measured within the air void of the tomb. After two years all three pig graves were excavated, the temperature and humidity data downloaded and the pig carcasses dissected on site to evaluate condition. The results demonstrate that: (1) there were distinct differences in the nature/rate of decomposition according to burial mode; (2) after two years burial the carcasses had been subject to considerable desiccation of the outer tissues while remaining moist in the core; (3) the body had undergone putrefactive change and collapsed leading to slumping of soil within the grave fill following the curvature of the pigs back, although this was not evident from the surface; (4) there was a specific plume of body decomposition products that wicked both horizontally and also vertically from the head wounds in the sandy desert soil. These observations have widespread application for prospection techniques, investigation of clandestine burial, time since deposition and in understanding changes within the burial microenvironment under arid conditions.

Experimental investigation of silvering in late Roman coinage

Roman Coinage suffered from severe debasement during the 3 rd century AD. By 250 AD., the production of complex copper alloy (Cu-Sn-Pb-Ag) coins with a silvered surface, became common practice. The same method continued to be applied during the 4 th century AD for the production of a new denomination introduced by Diocletian in 293/4 AD. Previous analyses of these coins did not solve key technological issues and in particular, the silvering process. The British Museum kindly allowed further research at Bradford to examine coins from Cope’s Archive in more detail, utilizing XRF, SEM-EDS metallography, LA-ICP-MS and EPMA. Metallographic and SEM examination of 128 coins, revealed that the silver layer was very difficult to trace because its thickness was a few microns and in some cases it was present under the corrosion layer. Results derived from the LA-ICP-MS and EPMA analyses have demonstrated, for the first time, the presence of Hg in the surface layers of these coins. A review of ancient sources and historic literature indicated possible methods which might have been used for the production of the plating. A programme of plating experiments was undertaken to examine a number of variables in the process, such as amalgam preparation, and heating cycles. Results from the experimental work are presented.