Robert E. Hermes

High‐efficiency pyrromethene doped solid‐state dye lasers

Successful laser oscillation of various pyrromethene dyes doped in a modified acrylic plastic has been achieved. Pumped with a frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser at 532 nm, a slope efficiency of 85% has been obtained from one of the dyes in plastic, with an output beam energy of 128 mJ. A useful lifetime of greater than 20 000 shots at 3.33 Hz with output energies above 30 mJ has been demonstrated, with only a 34% loss in the available output energy.

Evidence for deposition of 10 million tonnes of impact spherules across four continents 12,800 y ago

Significance We present detailed geochemical and morphological analyses of nearly 700 spherules from 18 sites in support of a major cosmic impact at the onset of the Younger Dryas episode (12.8 ka). The impact distributed ∼10 million tonnes of melted spherules over 50 million square kilometers on four continents. Origins of the spherules by volcanism, anthropogenesis, authigenesis, lightning, and meteoritic ablation are rejected on geochemical and morphological grounds. The spherules closely resemble known impact materials derived from surficial sediments melted at temperatures >2,200 °C. The spherules correlate with abundances of associated melt-glass, nanodiamonds, carbon spherules, aciniform carbon, charcoal, and iridium. Airbursts/impacts by a fragmented comet or asteroid have been proposed at the Younger Dryas onset (12.80 ± 0.15 ka) based on identification of an assemblage of impact-related proxies, including microspherules, nanodiamonds, and iridium. Distributed across four continents at the Younger Dryas boundary (YDB), spherule peaks have been independently confirmed in eight studies, but unconfirmed in two others, resulting in continued dispute about their occurrence, distribution, and origin. To further address this dispute and better identify YDB spherules, we present results from one of the largest spherule investigations ever undertaken regarding spherule geochemistry, morphologies, origins, and processes of formation. We investigated 18 sites across North America, Europe, and the Middle East, performing nearly 700 analyses on spherules using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy for geochemical analyses and scanning electron microscopy for surface microstructural characterization. Twelve locations rank among the world’s premier end-Pleistocene archaeological sites, where the YDB marks a hiatus in human occupation or major changes in site use. Our results are consistent with melting of sediments to temperatures >2,200 °C by the thermal radiation and air shocks produced by passage of an extraterrestrial object through the atmosphere; they are inconsistent with volcanic, cosmic, anthropogenic, lightning, or authigenic sources. We also produced spherules from wood in the laboratory at >1,730 °C, indicating that impact-related incineration of biomass may have contributed to spherule production. At 12.8 ka, an estimated 10 million tonnes of spherules were distributed across ∼50 million square kilometers, similar to well-known impact strewnfields and consistent with a major cosmic impact event.

Very high-temperature impact melt products as evidence for cosmic airbursts and impacts 12,900 years ago

It has been proposed that fragments of an asteroid or comet impacted Earth, deposited silica-and iron-rich microspherules and other proxies across several continents, and triggered the Younger Dryas cooling episode 12,900 years ago. Although many independent groups have confirmed the impact evidence, the hypothesis remains controversial because some groups have failed to do so. We examined sediment sequences from 18 dated Younger Dryas boundary (YDB) sites across three continents (North America, Europe, and Asia), spanning 12,000 km around nearly one-third of the planet. All sites display abundant microspherules in the YDB with none or few above and below. In addition, three sites (Abu Hureyra, Syria; Melrose, Pennsylvania; and Blackville, South Carolina) display vesicular, high-temperature, siliceous scoria-like objects, or SLOs, that match the spherules geochemically. We compared YDB objects with melt products from a known cosmic impact (Meteor Crater, Arizona) and from the 1945 Trinity nuclear airburst in Socorro, New Mexico, and found that all of these high-energy events produced material that is geochemically and morphologically comparable, including: (i) high-temperature, rapidly quenched microspherules and SLOs; (ii) corundum, mullite, and suessite (Fe3Si), a rare meteoritic mineral that forms under high temperatures; (iii) melted SiO2 glass, or lechatelierite, with flow textures (or schlieren) that form at > 2,200 °C; and (iv) particles with features indicative of high-energy interparticle collisions. These results are inconsistent with anthropogenic, volcanic, authigenic, and cosmic materials, yet consistent with cosmic ejecta, supporting the hypothesis of extraterrestrial airbursts/impacts 12,900 years ago. The wide geographic distribution of SLOs is consistent with multiple impactors.

Trinitite redux: Mineralogy and petrology

Abstract Trinitite is the glass formed during the first atomic bomb test near Socorro, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945. The protolith for the glass is arkosic sand. The majority of the glass is bottle green in color, but a red variety is found in the northern quadrant of the test site. Glass beads and dumbbells, similar in morphology to micro-tektites, are also found at the Trinity site. The original description of this material, which appeared in American Mineralogist in 1948, noted the presence of two glasses with distinctly different indices of refraction (n = 1.46 and 1.51-1.54). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Quantitative Evaluation of Minerals by SCANning electron microscopy (QEMSCAN) analysis is used to investigate the chemical composition and fine-scale structure of the glass. The glass is heterogeneous at the tens of micrometer scale with discrete layers of glass showing flow-like structures. The low index of refraction glass is essentially SiO2 (high-Si glass), but the higher index of refraction glass (low-Si glass) shows a range of chemical compositions. Embedded in the glass are partially melted quartz (α-quartz as determined by X-ray diffraction) and feldspar grains. The red trinitite consists of the same two glass components along with additional Cu-rich, Fe-rich, and Pb-rich silicate glasses. Metallic globules are common in the red trinitite. In terms of viscosity, the high-Si and low-Si glasses differ by several orders of magnitude, and there is minimal mixing between the two glasses. QEMSCAN analysis reveals that there are several chemical subgroups (that can be characterized as simple mixtures of melted mineral components) within the low-Si glasses, and there is limited mixing between these glass subgroups. The red trinitite contains regions of Fe-rich glass, which show sharp contact with surrounding Fe-poor glass. Both the textural and chemical data suggest that these two glasses existed as immiscible liquids. The metallic droplets in the red trinitite, which consist of variable amounts of Cu, Pb, and Fe, show textural evidence of unmixing. These metals are largely derived from anthropogenic sources-Cu wire, Pb bricks, and the steel tower and bomb casing. The combination of mineralogical and chemical data indicate that temperatures on the order of 1600 °C and pressures of at least 8 GPa were reached during the atomic detonation and that there was a reducing environment during cooling, as evidenced by the presence of native metals, metal sulfides, and a low-Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio. Independent estimates of maximum temperature during the detonation are on the order of 8000 K, far higher than suggested by the mineral data. This discrepancy is probably due to the very short duration of the event. In all respects, the trinitite glasses are similar to tektites and fulgurites, and by analogy one conclusion is that temperature estimates based on mineralogical observations for these materials also underestimate the maximum temperatures.

Trapped Annular Pressure Mitigation - A Spacer Fluid that Shrinks

Chevrons new approach to reducing trapped annular pressure uses a water-based spacer fluid that shrinks by 20%, creating room for thermal expansion.

Surface Modification of Poly(ether urethane) by Chemical Infusion and Graft Polymerization

The surface of a commercially available poly(ether urethane), TecoflexR, has been modified by either chemical infusion or graft polymerization techniques. The chemical infusion technique involves the physical entrapment of polymer additives in the near surface region of the sample, while graft polymerization provides chemical attachment of a polymer to the surface of the sample. The additives investigated for chemical infusion include poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) along with iodine and silver nitrate as antibacterial agents. Graft polymerization covalently bonds polymers to the surface of the poly(ether urethane). The polymerization is initiated by photolysis of Re2(CO)10 to generate radicals on the poly(ether urethane) surface. The monomers examined for graft polymerization include N-vinyl pyrrolidone (NVP) and 2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate (HEMA), along with sulfonate containing monomers such as sodium vinylsulfonate, 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propane sulfonic acid (AMPS) and its sodium salt (NaAMPS). The surface energies of these surface modified poly(ether urethane) samples were examined by contact angle measurements in water using the Wilhelmy balance technique. An increase in surface energy was observed following surface modification by both techniques, resulting in more hydrophilic surfaces than the untreated samples.

Synthetic thrombus model for in-vitro studies of laser thrombolysis

Laser thrombolysis is the controlled ablation of a thrombus (blood clot) blockage in a living arterial system. Theoretical modeling of the interaction of laser light with thrombi relies on the ability to perform in vitro experiments with well characterized surrogate materials. A synthetic thrombus formulation may offer more accurate results when compared to in vivo clinical experiments. We describe here the development of new surrogate materials based on formulations incorporating chicken egg, guar gum, modified food starch, and a laser light absorbing dye. The sound speed and physical consistency of the materials were very close to porcine (arterial) and human (venous) thrombi. Photographic and videotape recordings of pulsed dye laser ablation experiments under various experimental conditions were used to evaluate the new material as compared to in vitro tests with human (venous) thrombus. The characteristics of ablation and mass removal were similar to that of real thrombi, and therefore provide a more realistic model for in vitro laser thrombolysis when compared to gelatin.

Development of sampling and analytical method for styrene oxide

A method is described for the collection and analysis of airborne styrene oxide. The sampler consists of a glass fiber filter followed by a sorbent, Tenax-GC.∗ The styrene oxide is extracted from the sampler with ethyl acetate and an aliquot analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography. Recoveries of >95% were obtained from samples (0.5 to 44 µg) collected from 80% relative humidity test atmospheres. The coefficient of variation for the method, including an assumed pump error of ±5%, was 0.076. The limit of detection of the analytical method was 0.1 µg per sample. Stability and interference studies indicate the method to be suitable for personal monitoring.