Robert E. Kvaas

Solid‐state quaternary phase equilibrium diagram for the Hg–Cd–Te–O system

For the Hg–Cd–Te–O system an approximate three‐dimensional diagram of quaternary phase equilibrium at room temperature has been constructed for the first time, to aid in the study of Hg1−xCdxTe surface oxides. Thermodynamic calculations based on standard Gibbs energies of formation were performed to determine which phases are mutually stable. Stability relationships were checked by reaction experiments in mixtures of bulk reference compounds, using Raman spectroscopy for analysis. Elemental Hg is shown to coexist in equilibrium with all of the oxide and telluride phases. Thus, it is likely to be present whenever oxidation is incomplete. CdTeO3 is shown to be stable with respect to the other oxides and tellurides. Several instabilities are indicated, in which an oxide can react with the Hg1–xCdxTe to release elemental Hg or Te, or HgTe.

Progress with type-II superlattice IR detector arrays

We report progress in the development of long wavelength infrared (LWIR) focal plane arrays (FPAs) built on type-II strained layer InAs/GaSb superlattice materials. Work at Raytheon Vision Systems and Jet Propulsion Laboratory has led to successful devices with cutoff wavelengths in the 10 to 12 μm range. Pixels have been formed by wet etching and surface passivation by plasma-deposited silicon dioxide. We present test results on arrays hybridized with indium bump bonding to silicon readout integrated circuits, as well as analyses of current-voltage characteristics of individual diodes. In particular, we find that, at temperatures below about 70 K the leakage current is dominated by generation-recombination effects near zero bias and by trap-assisted tunneling in reverse bias. Although other authors have demonstrated imaging for SWIR and MWIR type-II superlattice devices, to our knowledge no one has done so prior to 2006 in the LWIR range. We have obtained both still and video imaging with 256×256 arrays with 30-μm pixels operating at 78 K, having high operability and a cutoff wavelength of 10.5 μm.

Infrared imaging arrays based on superlattice photodiodes

We report on the status of focal plane arrays (FPAs) based on GaSb/InAs type-II superlattice diodes grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and designed for infrared absorption in the 2-5μm and 8-10μm bands. Recent LWIR devices have produced differential resistance-area product greater than 100 Ohmcm2 at 80K with a long wavelength cutoff of approximately 10μm. The measured quantum efficiency of these front-side illuminated devices is close to 25% in the 8-9 μm range. MWIR devices have produced detectivities as high as 8x1013 Jones with a differential resistance-area product greater than 3x107 Ohmcm2 at 80K with a long wavelength cutoff of approximately 3.7μm. The measured quantum efficiency of these front-side illuminated MWIR devices is close to 40% in the 2-3μm range at low temperature and increases to over 60% near room temperature. Initial results on SiO2 and epitaxial-regrowth based passivation techniques are also presented, as well as images from the first lot of 1kx1k MWIR arrays and our latest 256x256 LWIR arrays.

Atomic scale analysis of the effect of the SiO2 passivation treatment on InAs/GaSb superlattice mesa sidewall

We have analyzed by electron microscopy techniques the effect of the deposition of a SiO2 passivation layer on an InAs/GaSb type-II superlattice (SL) mesa with applications as a photodetector. Our images reveal good conformal coverage by the SiO2 upon an undulating edge of the SL mesa. However, we have observed scarce As clusters at the interface between the SL mesa and the passivation layer and some degree of oxidation of the mesa sidewall. The strong reduction in surface leakage currents demonstrates that the observed imperfections do not have a substantial detrimental effect on the passivation capabilities of the SiO2 layer.

Demonstration of Mid and Long-Wavelength Infrared Antimonide-based Focal Plane Arrays

We have demonstrated the use of bulk antimonide based materials and type-II antimonide based superlattices in the development of large area mid wavelength infrared (MWIR) focal plane arrays (FPAs) as well as smaller format long wavelength infrared (LWIR) arrays. Barrier infrared photodetectors (BIRDs) and superlattice-based infrared photodetectors are expected to outperform traditional III-V MWIR and LWIR imaging technologies and are expected to offer significant advantages over II-VI material based FPAs. We have used molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) technology to grow InAs/GaSb superlattice pin photodiode and bulk InAsSb structures on GaSb substrates. The coupled quantum well superlattice device offers additional control in wavelength tuning via quantum well sizes and ternary composition. Furthermore, we have fabricated mid-wavelength 1024x1024 pixels superlattice imaging FPAs, 640x512 MWIR arrays based on the BIRD concept, and 256x256 LWIR arrays based on pin superlattice structures. These initial FPA have produced excellent infrared imagery.

Characterization of barrier effects in superlattice LWIR detectors

Improved LWIR sensors are needed for defense applications. We report an advance in sensor technology based on diodes in type-II strained layer superlattice structures built in the InAs/GaSb/AlSb materials system. A key feature of the devices is a pair of complementary barriers, namely, an electron barrier and a hole barrier formed at different depths in the growth sequence. The structure is known as CBIRD. This work is a collaborative effort between Raytheon Vision Systems and Jet Propulsion Laboratory, with design and growth being performed at JPL, and processing and testing at RVS. We have analyzed the current-voltage characteristics as functions of temperature and junction area, and have measured the spectral response and quantum efficiency as functions of bias voltage. From the temperature dependence of the dark current in a typical case, we infer that the effective barrier height is 0.175 eV. This indicates that dark current is limited by the barriers rather than diffusion or GR mechanisms occurring within the absorber region where the bandgap is 0.13 eV. The barriers prove to be very effective in suppressing the dark current. In the case of a detector having a cutoff wavelength of 9.24 μm, we find R0A > 105 ohm cm2 at 78 K, as compared with about 100 ohm cm2 for an InAs/GaSb homojunction of the same cutoff. For good photo response, the device must be biased to typically -200 or -250 mV. In this condition we find the internal quantum efficiency to be greater than 50%, while the RA remains above 104 ohm cm2. Thus, the device shows both high RA and good quantum efficiency at the same operating bias. We have also measured the capacitance of the CBIRD device as functions of bias and frequency to help characterize the behavior of the barriers. A 256×256 focal plane array was fabricated with this structure which showed at 78K a responsivity operability of more than 99%.

MBE grown type-II superlattice photodiodes for MWIR and LWIR imaging applications

We report on the status of GaSb/InAs type-II superlattice diodes grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and designed for infrared absorption in the 2-5μm and 8-12&mgr;m bands. Recent LWIR devices have produced detectivities as high as 8x1010 Jones with a differential resistance-area product greater than 6 Ohmcm2 at 80K with a long wavelength cutoff of approximately 12&mgr;m. The measured quantum efficiency of these front-side illuminated devices is close to 30% in the 10-11μm range. MWIR devices have produced detectivities as high as 8x1013 Jones with a differential resistance-area product greater than 3x107 Ohmcm2 at 80K with a long wavelength cutoff of approximately 3.7μm. The measured quantum efficiency of these front-side illuminated MWIR devices is close to 40% in the 2-3μm range at low temperature and increases to over 60% near room temperature. Initial results on SiO2 and epitaxial-regrowth based passivation techniques are also presented.

Hg1−xCdxTe native oxide reduction by CVD SiO2

An interfacial reaction is shown to occur between the native oxide on Hg1−xCdxTe and a CVD SiO2 overlayer. Native oxides were grown by anodizing and coated with SiO2 by the reaction of SiH4 and O2 at 100 °C. The structure was analyzed by sputter‐XPS profiling. The chemically split components of the Te(3d5/2) line indicate a much greater ratio of reduced to oxidized Te compared to the anodic oxide without SiO2. The reduced material is equivalent to roughly 15 A of anodic oxide. Calculations indicate that reactions in which oxide compounds of Hg, Cd, and Te are reduced by SiH4, Si, and SiO are thermodynamically favored.

Development of device fabrication process for strained layer superlattice IR detectors

We report on progress in the development of a device fabrication process for type-II strained layer superlattice IR detectors, composed of InAs/GaSb or InAs/GaInSb. Steps of the process include etching the mesas, cleaning up the surface, and applying a surface passivation treatment. Certain etchants have been evaluated and calibrated. The surface has been studied with single wavelength ellipsometry and results have been compared with modeled ellipsometry values, revealing effects of surface residues and surface roughness. An initial investigation of ammonium sulfide treatment for surface passivation has been made. Initial measurements of the IR transmission of the GaSb substrate have also been made to determine how much thinning is needed for back side illuminated operation of the IR detectors.

MBE based HgCdTe APDs and 3D LADAR sensors

Raytheon is developing HgCdTe APD arrays and sensor chip assemblies (SCAs) for scanning and staring LADAR systems. The nonlinear characteristics of APDs operating in moderate gain mode place severe requirements on layer thickness and doping uniformity as well as defect density. MBE based HgCdTe APD arrays, engineered for high performance, meet the stringent requirements of low defects, excellent uniformity and reproducibility. In situ controls for alloy composition and substrate temperature have been implemented at HRL, LLC and Raytheon Vision Systems and enable consistent run to run results. The novel epitaxial designed using separate absorption-multiplication (SAM) architectures enables the realization of the unique advantages of HgCdTe including: tunable wavelength, low-noise, high-fill factor, low-crosstalk, and ambient operation. Focal planes built by integrating MBE detectors arrays processed in a 2 x 128 format have been integrated with 2 x 128 scanning ROIC designed. The ROIC reports both range and intensity and can detect multiple laser returns with each pixel autonomously reporting the return. FPAs show exceptionally good bias uniformity <1% at an average gain of 10. Recent breakthrough in device design has resulted in APDs operating at 300K with essentially no excess noise to gains in excess of 100, low NEP <1nW and GHz bandwidth. 3D LADAR sensors utilizing these FPAs have been integrated and demonstrated both at Raytheon Missile Systems and Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division at China Lake. Excellent spatial and range resolution has been achieved with 3D imagery demonstrated both at short range and long range. Ongoing development under an Air Force Sponsored MANTECH program of high performance HgCdTe MBE APDs grown on large silicon wafers promise significant FPA cost reduction both by increasing the number of arrays on a given wafer and enabling automated processing.