Robert M. Rauber

Numerical Simulation of the Effects of Varying Ice Crystal Nucleation Rates and Aggregation Processes on Orographic Snowfall

Abstract The Colorado State University cloud model is applied to the simulation of orogrophic cloud snowfall. A model of ice crystal aggregation processes and primary nucleation and secondary ice particle production of crystals is described. Sensitivity experiments demonstrated that aggregation plays an important role in controlling the fields of cloud liquid water content, ice crystal concentrations, and surface precipitation amounts. The sensitivity experiments also support observations that the air mass is often quite clean in upper levels of stable orographic clouds. Introducing a reduction of available nuclei that can be activated by deposition/sorption processes brought concentrations to within observed values. This study clearly emphasizes the need for a great deal more fundamental research in the physics of aggregation processes and primary and secondary nucleation of ice crystals.

Rain in shallow cumulus over the ocean: the RICO Campaign

Shallow, maritime cumuli are ubiquitous over much of the tropical oceans, and characterizing their properties is important to understanding weather and climate. The Rain in Cumulus over the Ocean (RICO) field campaign, which took place during November 2004–January 2005 in the trades over the western Atlantic, emphasized measurements of processes related to the formation of rain in shallow cumuli, and how rain subsequently modifies the structure and ensemble statistics of trade wind clouds. Eight weeks of nearly continuous S-band polarimetric radar sampling, 57 flights from three heavily instrumented research aircraft, and a suite of ground- and ship-based instrumentation provided data on trade wind clouds with unprecedented resolution. Observational strategies employed during RICO capitalized on the advances in remote sensing and other instrumentation to provide insight into processes that span a range of scales and that lie at the heart of questions relating to the cause and effects of rain from shallow ...

An Explanation for the Existence of Supercooled Water at the Top of Cold Clouds

Abstract Aircraft measurements in many cold cloud systems have found a narrow layer of supercooled water to exist at the cloud top, even at temperatures colder than −30°C. We show in this paper that the imbalance between the condensate supply rate and the bulk ice crystal mass growth rate at a wide range of temperatures and updraft speeds is sufficient to produce this liquid layer near cloud top because of the unique property that the ice crystals located there are small. Calculations are also presented to determine the minimum magnitude and maximum depth of a sustained updraft required to produce supercooled water near cloud top from an initially ice saturated cloud containing a population of ice crystals. Potential sources of the updraft circulations required to produce the liquid layer near cloud top are discussed. Finally, we consider the impact of the liquid layer on both cloud microstructure and precipitation processes.

The Bow Echo and MCV Experiment: Observations and Opportunities

The Bow Echo and Mesoscale Convective Vortex Experiment (BAMEX) is a research investigation using highly mobile platforms to examine the life cycles of mesoscale convective systems. It represents a combination of two related investigations to study (a) bow echoes, principally those that produce damaging surface winds and last at least 4 h, and (b) larger convective systems that produce long-lived mesoscale convective vortices (MCVs). The field phase of BAMEX utilized three instrumented research aircraft and an array of mobile ground-based instruments. Two long-range turboprop aircraft were equipped with pseudo-dual-Doppler radar capability, the third aircraft was a jet equipped with dropsondes. The aircraft documented the environmental structure of mesoscale convective systems (MCSs), observed the kinematic and thermodynamic structure of the convective line and stratiform regions (where rear-inflow jets and MCVs reside), and captured the structure of mature MCVs. The ground-based instruments augmented sou...

The Relative Importance of Warm Rain and Melting Processes in Freezing Precipitation Events

Abstract The importance of warm rain and melting processes in freezing precipitation events is investigated by analyzing 972 rawinsonde soundings taken during freezing precipitation. The soundings cover regions of the United States east of the Rocky Mountain states for the period 1970–94. The warm rain process was found to be unambiguously responsible for freezing precipitation in 47% of the soundings. In these soundings, the clouds had temperatures entirely below freezing, or had top temperatures that were above freezing. Another 28% of the soundings had cloud top temperatures between 0° and −10°C. Clouds with top temperatures >−10°C also can support an active warm rain process. Considered together, the warm rain process was potentially important in about 75% of the freezing precipitation soundings. This estimate is significantly higher than the estimate of 30% in a previous study by Huffman and Norman. The temperature, moisture, and wind profiles of the soundings, their geographic distribution, and the ...

The characteristics and distribution of cloud water over the mountains of northern Colorado during wintertime storms. Part II: spatial distribution and microphysical characteristics.

Abstract The Physical and microphysical structure of the supercooled water fields in wintertime storms over the Park Range of the northern Colorado Rocky Mountains is examined using aircraft and ground-based measurements. Cloud top, cloud base, and zones of strong orographic lift are identified as regions in stratiform systems where supercooled water production can occur. Cloud systems over Colorados Park Range were found to have low droplet concentrations (≪300 cm−3). In clouds with the lowest droplet concentrations (<100 cm−3), broad droplet spectra were consistently observed. Significant numbers of large (<20 μm) droplets were present in these cases. The data presented here and in Part I are used to construct conceptual models of the structure and evolution of the liquid water fields in 1) shallow cloud systems with warm cloud tops, 2) deep stratiform clouds with cold tops, and 3) deep convective regions.

A Synoptic Weather Pattern and Sounding-Based Climatology of Freezing Precipitation in the United States East of the Rocky Mountains

Abstract An analysis of 411 winter storms that produced freezing precipitation events in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains over the 25-yr period of 1970–94 is presented to identify specific weather patterns associated with freezing precipitation and to determine their frequency of occurrence. Seven archetypical weather patterns are identified associated with freezing precipitation. Four patterns (arctic fronts, the warm front–occlusion sector of cyclones, cyclone–anticyclone couplets, and the west quadrant of anticyclones) are not associated with specific topographic features. Three patterns (East Coast cold-air damming with an anticyclone, cold-air damming with a coastal cyclone, and cold-air trapping during approaching continental cyclones) are associated with freezing precipitation in and along the Appalachian Mountains. The frequency of occurrence and duration of each of these patterns are presented, and variability within patterns is discussed. In the second part of the paper, the vertica...

Vertical Variability of Cloud Hydrometeors in the Stratiform Region of Mesoscale Convective Systems and Bow Echoes

Abstract During the Bow Echo and Mesoscale Convective Vortex Experiment, the NOAA P-3 research aircraft executed 17 spiral descents to the rear of convective lines to document the vertical variability of hydrometeors above, within, and below the stratiform melting layer. Ten spirals were behind lines that exhibited bowing at some stage in their evolution. Although quick descents on some spirals forced sampling of different particle zones, clear trends with respect to temperature were seen. For 16 spirals, the ambient relative humidity with respect to ice was in the range of 100% ± 4% at temperatures between −10°C and the melting layer, but exhibited steady decreases below the melting layer to an average relative humidity with respect to water of 77% ± 15% at 9°C. In contrast, one spiral conducted on 29 June 2003 directly behind a developing bow echo had a relative humidity with respect to ice averaging 85% at heights above the 0°C level and relative humidity with respect to ice further decreased below the...

Precipitation characteristics of trade wind clouds during RICO derived from Radar, Satellite, and aircraft measurements

Abstract Precipitation characteristics of trade wind clouds over the Atlantic Ocean near Barbuda are derived from radar and aircraft data and are compared with satellite-observed cloud fields collected during the Rain in Cumulus over the Ocean (RICO) field campaign. S-band reflectivity measurements Z were converted to rainfall rates R using a Z–R relationship derived from aircraft measurements. Daily rainfall rates varied from 0 to 22 mm day−1. The area-averaged rainfall rate for the 62-day period was 2.37 mm day−1. If corrected for evaporation below cloud base, this value is reduced to 2.23 mm day−1, which translates to a latent heat flux to the atmosphere of 63 W m−2. When compared with the wintertime ocean-surface latent heat flux from this region, the average return of water to the ocean through precipitation processes within the trade wind layer during RICO was 31%–39%. A weak diurnal cycle was observed in the area-averaged rainfall rate. The magnitude of the rainfall and the frequency of its occurre...

The Lake—Induced Convection Experiment and the Snowband Dynamics Project

Abstract A severe 5—day lake—effect storm resulted in eight deaths, hundreds of injuries, and over