Robert Tobias

Changing Behavior by Memory Aids: A Social Psychological Model of Prospective Memory and Habit Development Tested With Dynamic Field Data

This article presents a social psychological model of prospective memory and habit development. The model is based on relevant research literature, and its dynamics were investigated by computer simulations. Time-series data from a behavior-change campaign in Cuba were used for calibration and validation of the model. The model scored well in several system-analytical tests, including the replication of the data and the forecast of later developments based on earlier data. Additionally, the calibrated parameter values indicate that the accessibilities of intentions decay at the same rate as retrospective memories. However, the accessibilities may stay high due to a reminder, the effectiveness of which depends on a persons commitment to performing the behavior. Furthermore, the effect of the reminder decays over time. This decay is much slower than the development of habits, which, after about a month, were nearly fully developed if the person had executed the behavior sufficiently often. Finally, over time, habits were shown to replace the reminding effect of the external memory aid. This article points to a new understanding of the role of habits in supporting the performance of repeated behaviors through remembering.

Attitudinal and Relational Factors Predicting the Use of Solar Water Disinfection: A Field Study in Nicaragua:

Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is an uncomplicated and cheap technology providing individuals with safe drinking water by exposing water-filled plastic bottles to sunlight for 6 hours to kill waterborne pathogens. Two communities were visited, and 81 families (40 SODIS users and 41 nonusers) were interviewed. The relationship between several factors and the intention to use SODIS in the future and actual use were tested. The results showed that intention to use and actual use are mainly related to an overall positive attitude, intention to use is related to the use of SODIS by neighbors, and actual use is related to knowledge about SODIS; SODIS users reported a significantly lower incidence in diarrhea than SODIS nonusers. These results suggest that promotion activities should aim at creating a positive attitude, for example, by choosing a promoter that is able to inspire confidence in the new technology.

Deriving Interventions on the Basis of Factors Influencing Behavioral Intentions for Waste Recycling, Composting, and Reuse in Cuba

In this article the authors study existing waste-disposal intentions and behavior-influencing factors at the household level in Santiago de Cuba. The authors analyze the perceived reputation of the behavior, two different attitude components (sentiment and cost-value ratio), and perceived difficulties. Our focus is to compare three types of waste-disposal behaviors and derive specific interventions. The behaviors most suitable to Cuba are recycling, composting, and reuse. Analysis with structural equation modeling (SEM) reveals relevant differences in factor influence for attitude components and perceived reputation. Recycling and composting are most strongly influenced by affective aspects of attitude, whereas the general attitude toward reuse seems to have a more rational basis. The influence of perceived reputation on recycling is strong, that on composting is moderate, and no influence at all is found for reuse. The authors combine the SEM results with those of the qualitative data analysis of problems and incentives assessed from the participants and suggest behavior-specific interventions.

Promotion of Solar Water Disinfection: Comparing the Effectiveness of Different Strategies in a Longitudinal Field Study in Bolivia

Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is a simple method designed to treat microbiologically contaminated drinking water at the household level. This study focused on the effective promotion of the SODIS method using various strategies. In a longitudinal field study, we compared 2 interpersonal strategies (promoters and opinion leaders) and a centralized strategy (health fair) with a control group. Indicators of effectiveness were SODIS knowledge, SODIS adoption rate, and potential reach. The results suggest that use of promoters is the most successful strategy in terms of reaching people and changing their behavior toward SODIS use. The opinion leaders—although less effective—show some potential to stimulate communication among people about SODIS. Only the health fair did not have a big impact on behavior. Further discussion includes the costs of the various promotional activities, limitations, and recommendations for future projects.

Sustainable use of arsenic-removing sand filters in Vietnam: psychological and social factors

Elevated arsenic concentrations in drinking water pose a health threat to millions of people. Although point-of-use sand filters provide an effective technical solution for mitigating arsenic exposure, the actual reduction in health risk also depends on psychological factors that influence behaviors related to this device. For example, acquiring a sand filter must be preferred to competing options for investing effort and money and, once installed, the users must regularly maintain the filters. These key behaviors of sustainable use are related to psychological factors, such as problem awareness, benefits and costs, social and affective influences, and the perception of practical difficulties. This study investigated the sustainable use of arsenic-removing sand filters in Vietnam. Based on questionnaire surveys, data were gathered in 319 rural households and analyzed with regression models. Psychological factors explained significant variance in the investigated key behaviors. Significant factors included perceived improvements in water healthiness and taste, monetary costs, social norms, and affective influences. In questions with open answers, interviewees mentioned various practical problems, particularly those related to the inflexibility of the device and the effort of changing the sand. Interestingly, many interviewees operate the sand filters for removing iron from the water but are unaware of problems with arsenic.

Predicting water consumption habits for seven arsenic-safe water options in Bangladesh

BackgroundIn Bangladesh, 20 million people are at the risk of developing arsenicosis because of excessive arsenic intake. Despite increased awareness, many of the implemented arsenic-safe water options are not being sufficiently used by the population. This study investigated the role of social-cognitive factors in explaining the habitual use of arsenic-safe water options.MethodsEight hundred seventy-two randomly selected households in six arsenic-affected districts of rural Bangladesh, which had access to an arsenic-safe water option, were interviewed using structured face-to-face interviews in November 2009. Habitual use of arsenic-safe water options, severity, vulnerability, affective and instrumental attitudes, injunctive and descriptive norms, self-efficacy, and coping planning were measured. The data were analyzed using multiple linear regressions.ResultsLinear regression revealed that self-efficacy (B = 0.42, SE = .03, p < .001), the instrumental attitude towards the safe water option (B = 0.24, SE = .04, p < .001), the affective attitude towards contaminated tube wells (B = −0.04, SE = .02, p = .024), vulnerability (B = −0.20, SE = .02, p < .001), as well as injunctive (B = 0.08, SE = 0.04, p = .049) and descriptive norms (B = 0.34, SE = .03, p < .001) primarily explained the habitual use of arsenic-safe water options (R2 = 0.688). This model proved highly generalizable to all seven arsenic-safe water options investigated, even though habitual use of single options were predicted on the basis of parameters estimated without these options.ConclusionsThis general model for the habitual use of arsenic-safe water options may prove useful to predict other water consumption habits. Behavior-change interventions are derived from the model to promote the habitual use of arsenic-safe water options.

Opportunities and limits to market-driven sanitation services: evidence from urban informal settlements in East Africa

The improvement of sanitation conditions in slums(1) is difficult in part because of economic and institutional environments that often prevent private or public investment in infrastructure. This analysis of sanitation conditions in informal settlements in Nairobi and Kampala compares user practices. It also identifies the main actors involved in the provision of overlapping sanitation systems, involving a multitude of small-scale providers, along with the challenges these present. The paper goes on to describe a new market-based approach in Nairobi, developed by a social enterprise, Sanergy, which is responsible for the construction of facilities and the collection and treatment of wastes. The system improves user satisfaction, community wellbeing and environmental quality, pointing to a clear opportunity for such market-based interventions where a customer base already pays for sub-standard services. There remain challenges, however, around the ability to scale up and finance these providers, especially in complex operating environments that increase transactional costs for companies.

Evidence-based tailoring of behavior-change campaigns: increasing fluoride-free water consumption in rural Ethiopia with persuasion.

Two hundred million people worldwide are at risk of developing dental and skeletal fluorosis due to excessive fluoride uptake from their water. Since medical treatment of the disease is difficult and mostly ineffective, preventing fluoride uptake is crucial. In the Ethiopian Rift Valley, a fluoride-removal community filter was installed. Despite having access to a fluoride filter, the community used the filter sparingly. During a baseline assessment, 173 face-to-face interviews were conducted to identify psychological factors that influence fluoride-free water consumption. Based on the results, two behavior-change campaigns were implemented: a traditional information intervention targeting perceived vulnerability, and an evidence-based persuasion intervention regarding perceived costs. The interventions were tailored to household characteristics. The campaigns were evaluated with a survey and analyzed in terms of their effectiveness in changing behavior and targeted psychological factors. While the intervention targeting perceived vulnerability showed no desirable effects, cost persuasion decreased the perceived costs and increased the consumption of fluoride-free water. This showed that altering subjective perceptions can change behavior even without changing objective circumstances. Moreover, interventions are more effective if they are based on evidence and tailored to specific households.

Developing Strategies for Waste Reduction by Means of Tailored Interventions in Santiago de Cuba

This article introduces an approach to tailoring behavior-change campaigns to target populations using the example of solid waste reduction in Santiago de Cuba. Tailoring is performed in the following steps: (1) Psychological constructs are selected to detect problems in performing the target behavior, and data are gathered on these constructs. (2) Cluster analyses are performed on these data to identify different psychological types and their distribution in the population. (3) Intervention techniques are assigned according to the spatial and quantitative distribution and the characteristics of these types. Results of the cluster analyses are presented for three different behaviors that can reduce the amount of deposited solid waste (recycling, composting, reuse) on the basis of the four psychological constructs of instrumental and affective attitude, difficulty, and social pressure. The tailoring of interventions could be used to design environmental campaigns more efficiently.

Gathering Time-Series Data for Evaluating Behavior-Change Campaigns in Developing Countries: Reactivity of Diaries and Interviews.

Gathering time-series data of behaviors and psychological variables is important to understand, guide, and evaluate behavior-change campaigns and other change processes. However, repeated measurement can affect the phenomena investigated, particularly frequent face-to-face interviews, which are often the only option in developing countries. This article presents three intervention control studies to investigate this issue. Daily diaries in Cuba did not affect behavior or attitudes for persons with intervention but reduced attitudes for persons without intervention. Reactivity of face-to-face interviews in Bolivia was negligible if applied weekly, but strong if applied twice per week. The article concludes with recommendations for gathering time-series data in developing countries.