Roberta E. Rikli

A 30-s Chair-Stand Test as a Measure of Lower Body Strength in Community-Residing Older Adults

Measuring lower body strength is critical in evaluating the functional performance of older adults. The purpose of this study was to assess the test-retest reliability and the criterion-related and construct validity of a 30-s chair stand as a measure of lower body strength in adults over the age of 60 years. Seventy-six community-dwelling older adults (M age = 70.5 years) volunteered to participate in the study, which involved performing two 30-s chair-stand tests and two maximum leg-press tests, each conducted on separate days 2-5 days apart. Test-retest intraclass correlations of .84 for men and .92 for women, utilizing one-way analysis of variance procedures appropriate for a single trial, together with a nonsignificant change in scores from Day 1 testing to Day 2, indicate that the 30-s chair stand has good stability reliability. A moderately high correlation between chair-stand performance and maximum weight-adjusted leg-press performance for both men and women (r = .78 and .71, respectively) supports the criterion-related validity of the chair stand as a measure of lower body strength. Construct (or discriminant) validity of the chair stand was demonstrated by the tests ability to detect differences between various age and physical activity level groups. As expected, chair-stand performance decreased significantly across age groups in decades--from the 60s to the 70s to the 80s (p < .01) and was significantly lower for low-active participants than for high-active participants (p < .0001). It was concluded that the 30-s chair stand provides a reasonably reliable and valid indicator of lower body strength in generally active, community-dwelling older adults.

Effects of a Three-Year Exercise Program on Motor Function and Cognitive Processing Speed in Older Women

This study evaluated the effects of a three-year exercise program on motor performance and cognitive processing speed of previously sedentary older women, ages 57-85. Variables tested were simple and choice reaction time (CRT), balance, sit and reach flexibility, shoulder flexibility, and grip strength. Subjects participated three times a week in exercise performance classes designed to meet American College of Sports Medicine guidelines. Results indicate that performance was significantly improved on all measures during the course of the study (p less than .01) except for the sit and reach test (SRT), where significance was approached (p less than .027), but not reached. A comparison of the exercise subjects with a comparable group of nonexercising control subjects revealed significant interactions between treatment and time on all variables except CRT and grip strength. Pretest to posttest scores of the exercise subjects tended to improve over the three-year period, whereas the scores of the control subjects declined. Improved reaction time indicated exercise is effective in reversing or at least slowing ceratin age-related declines in motor performance and in speed of cognitive processing.

The Reliability and Validity of a Chair Sit-and-Reach Test as a Measure of Hamstring Flexibility in Older Adults

The purpose of this study was to examine the test-retest reliability and the criterion validity of a newly developed chair sit-and-reach (CSR) test as a measure of hamstring flexibility in older adults CSR performance was also compared to sit-and-reach (SR) and back-saver sit-and-reach (BSR) measures of hamstring flexibility. To estimate reliability, 76 men and women (M age = 70.5 years) performed the CSR on 2 different days, 2-5 days apart. In the validity phase of the study, scores of 80 men and women (M age = 74.2 years) were obtained on three field test measures of hamstring flexibility (CSR, SR, and BSR) and on a criterion test (goniometer measurement of a passive straight-leg raise). Results indicate that the CSR has good intraclass test-retest reliability (R = .92 for men; r = .96 for women), and has a moderate-to-good relationship with the criterion measure (r = .76 for men; r = .81 for women). The criterion validity of the CSR for the male and female participants is comparable to that of the SR (r = .74 and r = .71, respectively) and BSR (r = .70 and r = .71, respectively). Results indicate that the CSR test produces reasonably accurate and stable measures of hamstring flexibility. In addition, it appears that the CSR is a safe and socially acceptable alternative to traditional floor sit-and-reach tests as a measure of hamstring flexibility in older adults.

Reliability, validity, and methodological issues in assessing physical activity in older adults.

As pointed out in the Washburn (2000) article, there is increasing evidence that physical activity participation by older adults is associated with improved quality and quantity oflife. Specifically, the recent Surgeon Generals Report on PhysicalActivity and Health describes the following benefits of physical activity for older adults (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, 1996): • Reduces risk of dying from coronary heart disease and of developing high blood pressure, colon cancer, and diabetes. • Helps people with chronic disabling conditions improve their stamina and strength. • Reduces anxiety and depression; improves mood and feelings of well-being. • Helps maintain healthy bones, muscles, and joints. • Helps control joint swelling and pain associated with arthritis. • Helps maintain ability to live independently; reduces risk of falling and fracturing bones Evidence also suggests that as average life expectancy

Effects of Exercise on Bone Mineral Content in Postmenopausal Women.

The purpose of this study was to test the effects of a 10-month exercise program on bone mineral content (BMC) and bone mineral content/bone width (BMC/BW) of postmenopausal women. Thirty-one women (ages 57-83) completed either a general aerobics exercise program (n = 10), a general aerobics plus upper body weight training exercise program (n = 10), or served as nonexercising control subjects (n = 11). Average compliance rates for the exercise subjects ranged from 72 to 80%. All subjects were pre- and posttested for BMC and BMC/BW in the radius of the nondominant forearm. ANOVA results indicated that there were significant differences between the exercise and control subjects in the amount of change in BMC and in BMC/BW (p less than .05) during the course of the study. The exercise subjects experienced mean increases of 1.38% and 1.33% in BMC and BMC/BW, respectively, whereas the control group had decreases of 2.50% and 2.58%. No significant differences were found for subjects in the two types of exercise programs, suggesting that the effects of exercise relative to maintenance of bone density may be general as well as localized.

The Reliability of Distance Run Tests for Children in Grades K—4

The purpose of this study was to determine test-retest reliability for the 1-mile, 3/4-mile, and 1/2-mile distance run/alk tests for children in Grades K-4. Fifty-one intact physical education classes were randomly assigned to one of the three distance run conditions. A total of 1,229 (621 boys, 608 girls) completed the test-retests in the fall (October), with 1,050 of these students (543 boys, 507 girls) repeating the tests in the spring (May). Results indicated that the 1-mile run/walk distance, as recommended for young children in most national test batteries, has acceptable intraclass reliability (.83 less than R less than .90) for both boys and girls in Grades 3 and 4, has minimal (fall) to acceptable (spring) reliability for Grade 2 students (.70 less than R less than .83), but is not reliable for children in Grades K and 1 (.34 less than R less than .56). The 1/2 mile was the only distance meeting minimal reliability standards for boys and girls in Grades K and 1 (.73 less than R less than .82). Results also indicated that reliability estimates remained fairly stable across gender and age groups from the fall to spring testing periods, with the exception of the noticeably improved values for Grade 2 students on the 1-mile run/walk test. Criterion-referenced reliability (P, percent agreement) was also estimated relative to Physical Best and Fitnessgram run/walk standards. Reliability coefficients for all age group standards were acceptable to high (.70 less than P less than .95), except for Fitnessgram standards for 5-year-old girls on the 1-mile test for both fall and spring and for 6-year-old boys and girls on the 1-mile test administered in the spring.

Age and Physical Activity Effects on Reaction Time and Digit Symbol Substitution Performance in Cognitively Active Adults

University professors (N = 56), divided into two age groups (< 50 years and > 50 years) and two physical activity level groups (high and low), were tested on three tasks requiring increasingly complex cognitive processing--simple reaction time (SRT), choice reaction time (CRT), and on a digit symbol substitution test (DSST). A significant main effect for exercise, with high active subjects performing better than low active subjects, was found for SRT (p < .001) and CRT (p < .01) but not for DSST (p < .09). Significant main effects for age, with younger subjects performing better than older subjects, were found on DSST (p < .01) and CRT (p < .05) but not for SRT (p < .09). The observation that the effect of age was more pronounced with increasing task complexity is consistent with previous research. However, the tendency for exercise effects to decrease with increasing task complexity is not consistent with former findings, suggesting that perhaps the controlled high level of cognitive activity of subjects in this study may have offset the usual effects of exercise on information processing speed. No significant Age x Activity Level interactions were found on any of the dependent raw score data. However, compared to normative scores of the population at large, there was a slight increase in DSST percentile ranks with age for the older aerobically active professors, whereas a decrease occurred for the inactive subjects.

Kinesiology—A “Homeless” Field: Addressing Organization and Leadership Needs

Motivated by her belief in the contributions of physical activity to the “good life” for all people, Amy Morris Homans was infl uential in the development of physical education as a viable and respected academic field of study in higher education. Over the past 100 years, however, as the field faced pressures to become more scientific, it has become increasingly decentralized into subdisciplinary units, thus, losing much of its unified mission and focus as an integrated field of study in academia. This fragmentation, along with the lack of an “umbrella” professional association or organizational home for the field (now most commonly called kinesiology) has hampered the fields ability to gain national recognition as a disciplinary field of study, its effectiveness as a political voice, and its ability to conduct the kind of cross-disciplinary research needed to best address important questions and issues in the field. Such overspecialization, together with a lack of a common name and common purpose, has raised concern about the fields identify and importance in higher education, with program cuts continuing to be the unfortunate result at a number of major universities. This paper addresses the importance of reconnecting the field and suggests a possible strategy for developing a new umbrella professional association dedicated to the unification and advancement of the field.

Movement and mobility influence on successful aging: addressing the issue of low physical activity.

Demographic projections indicate that the over 65 population will double between 2000 and 2030, from 35 million to 70 million. Unfortunately, statistics also show that although people are living longer, they are living with an increased prevalence of chronic disease, a trend that could have devastating effects on health care costs and quality of life in later years unless ways are found to reverse this trend. This paper briefly reviews evidence showing the positive contributions of regular physical activity (PA) to health and well-being in later years, as well as the role of PA in preventing and, in some cases, reversing age-related functional declines. However, despite the well-documented benefits of PA, two-thirds of Americans continue to live mostly sedentary lifestyles, a statistic that has been largely unaffected by past physical activity intervention research. Issues related to this persistent lack of physical activity are discussed.

Observational Learning and Practice Variability

Abstract Two factors said to influence motor learning are mode of information feedback and conditions of practice. The current investigation explored certain aspects of those factors for the specific purpose of gaining insight into processes underlying the observational learning of motor skills. Design was a practice (variable/constant) X information mode (modeling/physical) X trials factorial. Physical practice occurred in the absence of vision. Dependent variable was an angular positioning task. The acquisition phase consisted of 60 KR trials. The physical conditions received KR based on their own response outcomes, while the modeling groups heard model-contingent KR. Subsequent no-KR transfer to a new target located outside the range of previous practice supported the notion of the superiority of variable over constant practice during observational learning. The results also indicated that subjects who observed a model who had practiced under variable conditions were later able to perform in a manner q...