Robin S. Codding

Implementation Science and School Psychology

The APA Division 16 Working Group on Translating Science to Practice contends that implementation science is essential to the process of translating evidence-based interventions (EBIs) into the unique context of the schools, and that increasing attention to implementation will lead to the improvement of school psychological services and school learning environments. Key elements of implementation and implementation science are described. Four critical issues for implementation science in school psychology are presented: barriers to implementation, improving intervention fidelity and identifying core intervention components, implementation with diverse client populations, and implementation in diverse settings. What is known and what researchers need to investigate for each set of issues is addressed. A discussion of implementation science methods and measures is included. Finally, implications for research, training and practice are presented.

Symptoms of ADHD and Academic Concerns in College Students With and Without ADHD Diagnoses

Objective: Previous research has found ADHD symptoms to be common in the general population but has not compared endorsement of symptoms between ADHD and non-ADHD groups. This study examines self-reported ADHD symptoms and academic complaints in college students. Method: Students without (n = 496) and with ADHD (n = 38) completed a questionnaire covering the 18 ADHD symptoms in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and academic and test-taking concerns. Results and Conclusion: Students with ADHD diagnoses reported significantly more ADHD symptoms and academic concerns, but none of the 18 symptoms or 6 concerns proved to be both sensitive and specific to ADHD. Poor specificity of symptoms and academic complaints casts doubt on the utility of this self-reported information in diagnosis, particularly if used alone and without regard to severity or extent of impairment. (J. of Att. Dis. 2008; 12(2) 156-161)

EFFECTS OF VIDEO MODELING ON TREATMENT INTEGRITY OF BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTIONS

We examined the effects of individualized video modeling on the accurate implementation of behavioral interventions using a multiple baseline design across 3 teachers. During video modeling, treatment integrity improved above baseline levels; however, teacher performance remained variable. The addition of verbal performance feedback increased treatment integrity to 100% for all participants, and performance was maintained 1 week later. Teachers found video modeling to be more socially acceptable with performance feedback than alone, but rated both positively.

Extended Time Accommodations and the Mathematics Performance of Students With and Without ADHD

Test accommodations such as extended time are presumed to reduce the impact of a disability, while not affecting test scores of the general population. This study examined the effects of an extended time (time and one-half) accommodation on the mathematics performance of fifth-to seventh-grade students with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The results did not support the differential boost hypothesis in that the ADHD group did not make more gains than the control group with extended time. However, the ADHD group did demonstrate lower processing speed, math fluency, and achievement. These findings suggest that, although students with ADHD tend to work with less overall efficiency in terms of processing speed and task fluency, they do not benefit significantly more than nondisabled students when given extended time on a speed-based math task. Implications for future research and accommodations policies are discussed.

Using Performance Feedback To Decrease Classroom Transition Time And Examine Collateral Effects On Academic Engagement

Performance feedback has been described as a necessary component of consultation. Although feedback has been used to improve academic performance of individual students, less research has examined the effects on classroom academic engagement when implementation of classroom management variables is the source of feedback. Using a multiple-baseline design, the effects of performance feedback with goal setting was examined across three high school biology teachers who were first provided with feedback on the number of seconds devoted to transitions and then successful implementation of classroom time management strategies. Feedback on the number of transition minutes alone led to decreases in transition time and corresponding increases in student academic engagement for all teachers. One teacher benefited from additional feedback on classroom time management strategies. For all teachers, low rates of transition time and high rates of academic engagement were maintained when the intervention was faded and after it was terminated.

Addressing Mathematics Computation Problems: A Review of Simple and Moderate Intensity Interventions

In order for school professionals to make informed decisions about appropriate interventions, it is imperative that they are informed as to what is available to aid students. The purpose of the present literature review was to examine specific interventions that could be employed with students identified as needing additional support in mathematics. The focus was on computation interventions (e.g., simple or moderate intensity) that could be implemented within the structure of the classroom utilizing the resources available and skills of school professionals. Thirty-seven studies were identified that met inclusion criteria. Results of this review indicate that there are numerous interventions with documented effectiveness at these levels of intensity for students needing additional mathematics support. These interventions were shown to be effective, with most studies demonstrating moderate to large effect sizes. In addition, interventions could be implemented with relatively little time, resources, and training. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Assessment of Reading Rate in Postsecondary Students

There has been a steady increase in students with disabilities attending college and making requests for test accommodations. Most requests are for extended time, presumably due to slow reading speed. Tests of reading rate for adults have been criticized for poor psychometric adequacy, and no current norms exist regarding the expected reading rate for college students. This study examined reading rate via two methods, as well as their relationship to other reading measures. Ninety typical college students (67% female) were administered the Nelson Denny Reading Test (Reading Rate [NDRR] and Comprehension [NDC] tests), the Woodcock Johnson-III Reading Fluency (RF) and Word Attack (WA) tests, and three oral reading probes used to obtain words read correctly per minute (WRCM). On average, college students read 189 words correctly per minute based on oral reading probes and 231 wpm based on NDRR. The WRCM measure was more strongly related to RF and WA than was NDRR and was a better predictor of reading comprehension (NDC). It would appear that WRCM may be a better measure of reading rate than the often used, much criticized, Nelson Denny Reading Rate. Additional research on WRCM with adults is recommended.

Selecting Intervention Strategies: Using Brief Experimental Analysis for Mathematics Problems

Although brief experimental analysis (BEA) procedures have been effective for aiding instructional decision making in the area of reading, there is a paucity of research extending this technology to mathematics. This study extends the literature on mathematics BEA by using an abridged data series that compares skill- and performance-based interventions, and examines effects of the selected intervention across time and on generalization worksheets. Brief experimental analysis and extended analyses across target and generalization worksheets were conducted with four children in grades 3 to 6. Results demonstrated that mathematics BEA can be used to select effective interventions and that these results remain stable across time and compared to baseline. However, collateral effects on generalization materials were found for only 1 of 4 children.

Extending the research on the Tests of Early Numeracy: Longitudinal analyses over two school years

The purpose of this study was to extend the research on the Tests of Early Numeracy (TEN) by following a cohort of 61 students from kindergarten through first grade. Specifically, this study examined the relationship between kindergarten and first-grade TEN measures built within and across school years and their predictive validity of a math curriculum-based measurement and teacher-derived measures of mathematics administered in first grade. Correlation analyses indicated significant relationships between kindergarten and first-grade TEN performance. Results from repeated-measures analyses of variance indicated that students made significant growth on all of the TEN measures from winter kindergarten to spring of first grade; however, different measures yielded significant growth within each grade. Kindergarten TEN performance also accounted for a significant amount of variance in first-grade computation skills and was moderately correlated with teacher ratings.

The Effects of Self-Monitoring and Performance Feedback on the Treatment Integrity of Behavior Intervention Plan Implementation and Generalization.

Accurate implementation of individualized behavior intervention plans (BIPs) is a critical aspect of evidence-based practice. Research demonstrates that neither training nor consultation is sufficient to improve and maintain high rates of treatment integrity (TI). Therefore, evaluation of ongoing support strategies is needed. The purpose of this study was to examine the use of self-monitoring (SM) alone and with performance feedback (PFB) as a means for improving and generalizing TI of individualized BIPs using a multiple-baseline design across teacher–student dyads. Findings illustrated idiosyncratic responding in that one teacher established and maintained high levels of TI with SM alone, two required the addition of PFB but subsequently maintained TI with SM alone, and one teacher required the combined treatment package to be successful. Generalized TI was observed across all teachers on similar plans and for students whose interfering behavior served the same function. Student behavior corresponded moderately with increases in TI.