Robyn Moffitt

Inhibitory self-control moderates the effect of changed implicit food evaluations on snack food consumption☆

The current study used a modified implicit association test (IAT) to change implicit evaluations of unhealthy snack food and tested its effects on subsequent consumption. Furthermore, we investigated whether these effects were moderated by inhibitory self-control. A sample of 148 women (17-25 years) motivated to manage weight through healthy eating completed an IAT intervention, and pre- and post-intervention IATs assessing implicit evaluations of unhealthy food. The intervention IAT trained participants to pair unhealthy food stimuli with either positive or negative stimuli. A task disguised as a taste-test was used to assess consumption of unhealthy snack foods. Inhibitory self-control was measured using a self-report scale. As predicted, the implicit evaluation of unhealthy food became more negative from pre- to post-training among participants in the food negative pairing condition; however, there was no corresponding change in the food positive pairing condition. The effect of the training on snack consumption was moderated by inhibitory self-control with only participants low in inhibitory self-control having lower snack intake following the food negative training. This finding is consistent with dual-process models of behaviour which predict that self-control capacity renders impulses less influential on behaviour. Furthermore, it suggests that an intervention that retrains implicit food evaluations could be effective at reducing unhealthy eating, particularly among those with low inhibitory self-control.

Reduce temptation or resist it? Experienced temptation mediates the relationship between implicit evaluations of unhealthy snack foods and subsequent intake

A more negative implicit evaluation of unhealthy food stimuli and a more positive implicit evaluation of a weight-management goal have been shown to predict lower consumption of unhealthy food. However, the associations between these evaluations, temptation to indulge and consumption of unhealthy food remain unclear. The current study investigated whether temptation would mediate the relationship between implicit food and goal evaluations and consumption (resembling an antecedent-focused route to self-control of eating), or whether those evaluations would moderate the relationship between temptation and consumption (resembling a response-focused route). A sample of 156 women (17–25 years), who tried to manage their weight through healthy eating, completed two implicit association tasks assessing implicit food and goal evaluations, respectively. Intake of four energy-dense snack foods was measured in a task disguised as a taste test, and participants reported the strength of experienced temptation to indulge in the snacks offered. Negative implicit food evaluation was associated with lower snack intake, and temptation mediated this relationship. Implicit goal evaluation was unrelated to both temptation strength and snack consumption. The findings contribute to an understanding of how negative implicit unhealthy food evaluation relates to lower consumption, namely through the mediation of temptation to indulge in those foods.

The moderating role of state inhibitory control in the effect of evaluative conditioning on temptation and unhealthy snacking

The current study sought to test the effect of a brief evaluative conditioning intervention on experienced temptation to indulge, and consumption of, unhealthy snack foods. We expected that a training task associating unhealthy food with negative affect would result in lower experienced temptation across the sample, but would lead to lower snack consumption only among individuals with low state inhibitory control. Undergraduate women (N=134) aged 17-25 years were randomised to complete an evaluative conditioning procedure pairing unhealthy food with either positive or negative affect. Snack consumption was subsequently assessed using a taste-test procedure which offered four snack foods for ad libitum consumption. Participants also reported the strength of their experienced temptation to indulge in the foods presented. Additionally, they completed a Stop Signal Task as a measure of state inhibitory control. As predicted, participants in the food negative condition ate less than those in the food positive condition, but this effect was only observed among individuals with low inhibitory control. The same moderation pattern was observed for the effect of evaluative conditioning on temptation: only participants with low inhibitory control reported feeling less tempted by the snack foods in the food negative condition compared to the food positive condition. In addition, temptation mediated the effect of evaluative conditioning on intake for individuals with low inhibitory control. Findings suggest that evaluative conditioning of unhealthy food stimuli could be especially useful for reducing temptation and consumption of unhealthy snacks in situations where individuals experience low inhibitory control capacity.

The efficacy of a self‐managed Acceptance and Commitment Therapy intervention DVD for physical activity initiation

OBJECTIVES Initiating and maintaining physical activity presents the individual with challenges of inconvenience, discomfort, and counteractive energy. Addressing these challenges requires an intervention that elicits motivation to engage in this activity, minimizes the direct relationship between unwanted internal experiences and inaction, and is also in itself accessible and convenient. Accordingly, this study investigated the efficacy of a self-managed Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) intervention delivered via DVD and tailored for physical activity initiation. DESIGN AND METHODS Fifty-nine minimally active community participants were randomly allocated to receive a 12-week pedometer-based walking programme, or the same walking programme with the additional provision of the ACT DVD. The primary outcome was overall physical activity level (assessed at baseline and post-intervention), and the secondary outcome was pedometer-assessed step count (measured at 4-weekly intervals throughout the intervention period). RESULTS Participants who received the ACT DVD achieved a significantly greater increase in physical activity levels post-intervention, were more likely to achieve the goals specified in the programme, and reported a higher average step count than participants who received the walking programme in isolation. CONCLUSIONS The ACT intervention, delivered via DVD for the promotion of physical activity, proved a simple, efficient, and accessible method to encourage positive short-term increases in an important health-promoting behaviour. Statement of contribution What is already known? ACT interventions can increase physical activity levels through augmenting initiatory self-regulatory control. Face-to-face delivery presents challenges of accessibility and feasibility for community implementation. There is a need for effective interventions that maximize impact while minimizing inconvenience. What does this study add? Supplementing a walking programme with a self-managed ACT DVD produced significant increases in physical activity. The ACT DVD is a convenient, accessible, and potentially cost-effective approach to physical activity initiation. ACT lends itself to implementation as a self-managed electronically delivered intervention.

A systematic review of the application of interactive virtual reality to sport

Virtual reality (VR) technology is being increasingly used by athletes, coaches, and other sport-related professionals. The present systematic review aimed to document research on the application of VR to sport to better understand the outcomes that have emerged in this work. Research literature databases were searched, and the results screened to identify articles reporting applications of interactive VR to sport with healthy human participants. Twenty articles were identified and coded to document the study aims, research designs, participant characteristics, sport types, VR technology, measures, and key findings. From the review, it was shown that interactive VR applications have enhanced a range of performance, physiological, and psychological outcomes. The specific effects have been influenced by factors related to the athlete and the VR system, which comprise athlete factors, VR environment factors, task factors, and the non-VR environment factors. Important variables include the presence of others in the virtual environment, competitiveness, task autonomy, immersion, attentional focus, and feedback. The majority of research has been conducted on endurance sports, such as running, cycling, and rowing, and more research is required to examine the use of interactive VR in skill-based sports. Additional directions for future research and reporting standards for researchers are suggested.

Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior to Physical Activity: The Moderating Role of Mental Toughness

This study explored whether mental toughness, the capacity to maintain performance under pressure, moderated the relation between physical activity intentions and subsequent behavior. Participants (N = 117) completed the Mental Toughness Index and a theory of planned behavior questionnaire. Seven days later, physical activity was assessed using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control explained substantial variance (63.1%) in physical activity intentions. Intentions also significantly predicted physical activity behavior. The simple slopes analyses for the moderation effect revealed a nonsignificant intention-behavior relation at low levels of mental toughness. However, intentions were significantly and positively related to physical activity when mental toughness was moderate or high, suggesting that the development of a mentally tough mindset may reduce the gap between behavior and physical activity intention. Future research is needed to confirm these findings and apply them in the design of mental toughness interventions to facilitate physical activity engagement.

Too Depleted to Try? Testing the Process Model of Ego Depletion in the Context of Unhealthy Snack Consumption.

BACKGROUND The process model proposes that the ego depletion effect is due to (a) an increase in motivation toward indulgence, and (b) a decrease in motivation to control behaviour following an initial act of self-control. In contrast, the reflective-impulsive model predicts that ego depletion results in behaviour that is more consistent with desires, and less consistent with motivations, rather than influencing the strength of desires and motivations. The current study sought to test these alternative accounts of the relationships between ego depletion, motivation, desire, and self-control. METHODS One hundred and fifty-six undergraduate women were randomised to complete a depleting e-crossing task or a non-depleting task, followed by a lab-based measure of snack intake, and self-report measures of motivation and desire strength. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS In partial support of the process model, ego depletion was related to higher intake, but only indirectly via the influence of lowered motivation. Motivation was more strongly predictive of intake for those in the non-depletion condition, providing partial support for the reflective-impulsive model. Ego depletion did not affect desire, nor did depletion moderate the effect of desire on intake, indicating that desire may be an appropriate target for reducing unhealthy behaviour across situations where self-control resources vary.

Treatment Beliefs and Preferences for Psychological Therapies for Weight Management

OBJECTIVE Treatment beliefs and preferences for psychological therapies were investigated in 80 overweight individuals trying to manage their weight. METHOD Participants read 4 therapy descriptions: cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), behavior therapy (BT), cognitive therapy (CT), and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). They ranked the treatments in order of preference, explained the reason for their preferred choice, and reported their beliefs about each approach. RESULTS Individual CBT (43.42%) and BT (31.58%), delivered face-to-face or technologically, were the most preferred treatment options, while ACT (17.12%) and CT (7.89%) were the least preferred. The main reasons cited among those who chose CBT and BT were perceived comprehensiveness and the practical nature of the approach, respectively. Treatment beliefs were strongly predicted by psychological need satisfaction as well as perceived ease and effort. CONCLUSIONS Further research should ascertain the stability of treatment beliefs and the efficacy of modifying the treatment context to meet individual needs.

Affective and Attentional States When Running in a Virtual Reality Environment

Engaging in physical exercise in a virtual reality (VR) environment has been reported to improve physical effort and affective states. However, these conclusions might be influenced by experimental design factors, such as comparing VR environments against a non-VR environment without actively controlling for the presence of visual input in non-VR conditions. The present study addressed this issue to examine affective and attentional states in a virtual running task. Participants (n = 40), completed a 21 min run on a treadmill at 70% of Vmax. One group of participants ran in a computer-generated VR environment that included other virtual runners while another group ran while viewing neutral images. Participants in both conditions showed a pattern of reduced positive affect and increased tension during the run with a return to high positive affect after the run. In the VR condition, higher levels of immersive tendencies and attention/absorption in the virtual environment were associated with more positive affect after the run. In addition, participants in the VR condition focused attention more on external task-relevant stimuli and less to internal states than participants in the neutral images condition. However, the neutral images condition produced less negative affect and more enjoyment after the run than the VR condition. The finding suggest that the effects of exercising in a VR environment will depend on individual difference factors (e.g., attention/absorption in the virtual world) but it may not always be better than distracting attention away from exercise-related cues.

Implicit approach–avoidance associations predict leisure-time exercise independently of explicit exercise motivation.

Traditional models of exercise motivation presume that behavior is driven by rational decision-making processes. However, recent evidence suggests that automatic motivational processes also play a role in motivating exercise behavior. The current study examined whether regular exercise engagement is linked to implicit approach–avoidance memory associations, as well as explicit intentions and self-determined exercise motivation. A sample of 104 healthy adults completed self-reported measures of exercise intentions, self-determined exercise motivation, and levels of exercise engagement. Approach–avoidance associations were measured using a modified Recoding-Free Implicit Association Test. Overall, participants associated exercise more strongly with approach than with avoidance attributes in memory, indicating an approach bias for exercise cues. In addition, individuals who reported engaging in higher levels of leisure-time exercise displayed a significantly stronger approach bias for exercise than less active individuals. Furthermore, approach–avoidance associations explained unique variance in exercise behavior after controlling for the effects of explicit exercise intentions and self-determined exercise motivation. These findings suggest that increased engagement in leisure-time exercise is associated with an implicit cognitive bias to approach exercise-related cues in the environment. Moreover, these findings support current theoretical models that suggest that exercise is at least partly motivated by implicit motivational processes.