Roderick C. Hobbs

SEASONAL HEMATOLOGY AND SERUM CHEMISTRY OF WILD BELUGA WHALES (DELPHINAPTERUS LEUCAS) IN BRISTOL BAY, ALASKA, USA

We collected blood from 18 beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas), live-captured in Bristol Bay, Alaska, USA, in May and September 2008, to establish baseline hematologic and serum chemistry values and to determine whether there were significant differences in hematologic values by sex, season, size/age, or time during the capture period. Whole blood was collected within an average of 19 min (range=11–30 min) after the net was set for capture, and for eight animals, blood collection was repeated in a later season after between 80–100 min; all blood was processed within 12 hr. Mean hematocrit, chloride, creatinine, total protein, albumin, and alkaline phosphatase were significantly lower in May than they were in September, whereas mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, monocytes, phosphorous, magnesium, blood urea nitrogen, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, γ-glutamyltranspeptidase, and creatinine kinase were significantly higher. Mean total protein, white blood cell count, neutrophils, and lymphocytes were significantly higher early in the capture period than they were later. No significant differences in blood analyte values were noted between males and females. Using overall body length as a proxy for age, larger (older) belugas had lower white blood cell, lymphocyte, and eosinophil counts as well as lower sodium, potassium, and calcium levels but higher creatinine levels than smaller belugas. These data provide values for hematology and serum chemistry for comparisons with other wild belugas.

Blow collection as a non-invasive method for measuring cortisol in the beluga (Delphinapterus leucas).

Non-invasive sampling techniques are increasingly being used to monitor glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, as indicators of stressor load and fitness in zoo and wildlife conservation, research and medicine. For cetaceans, exhaled breath condensate (blow) provides a unique sampling matrix for such purposes. The purpose of this work was to develop an appropriate collection methodology and validate the use of a commercially available EIA for measuring cortisol in blow samples collected from belugas (Delphinapterus leucas). Nitex membrane stretched over a petri dish provided the optimal method for collecting blow. A commercially available cortisol EIA for measuring human cortisol (detection limit 35 pg ml−1) was adapted and validated for beluga cortisol using tests of parallelism, accuracy and recovery. Blow samples were collected from aquarium belugas during monthly health checks and during out of water examination, as well as from wild belugas. Two aquarium belugas showed increased blow cortisol between baseline samples and 30 minutes out of water (Baseline, 0.21 and 0.04 µg dl−1; 30 minutes, 0.95 and 0.14 µg dl−1). Six wild belugas also showed increases in blow cortisol between pre and post 1.5 hour examination (Pre 0.03, 0.23, 0.13, 0.19, 0.13, 0.04 µg dl−1, Post 0.60, 0.31, 0.36, 0.24, 0.14, 0.16 µg dl−1). Though this methodology needs further investigation, this study suggests that blow sampling is a good candidate for non-invasive monitoring of cortisol in belugas. It can be collected from both wild and aquarium animals efficiently for the purposes of health monitoring and research, and may ultimately be useful in obtaining data on wild populations, including endangered species, which are difficult to handle directly.

Alaska marine mammal stock assessments, 2009

NOTE – March 2008: In areas outside of Alaska, studies have shown that stock structure is more fine-scale than is reflected in the Alaska Stock Assessment Reports. At this time, no data are available to reflect stock structure for harbor porpoise in Alaska. However, based on comparisons with other regions, smaller stocks are likely. Should new information on harbor porpoise stocks become available, the harbor porpoise Stock Assessment Reports will be updated.

Alaska marine mammal stock assessments, 2006

STOCK DEFINITION AND GEOGRAPHIC RANGE The humpback whale is distributed worldwide in all ocean basins. In winter, most humpback whales occur in the subtropical and tropical waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Humpback whales in the high latitudes of the North Pacific are seasonal migrants that feed on euphausiids and small schooling fishes (Nemoto 1957; 1959, Clapham and Mead 1999). The humpback whale population was considerably reduced as a result of intensive commercial exploitation during the 20 century. A large-scale study of humpback whales throughout the North Pacific was conducted in 2004-06 (the Structure of Populations, Levels of Abundance, and Status of Humpbacks, or SPLASH, project). Initial results from this project (Calambokidis et al. 2008), including abundance estimates and movement information, are used in this report. Genetic results, which may provide a more comprehensive understanding of humpback whale population structure in the North Pacific, should be available in the near future. Figure 38. Approximate distribution of humpback whales in the western North Pacific (shaded area). Feeding and wintering grounds are presented above (see text). Area within the hash lines is a probable distribution area based on sightings in the Beaufort Sea. See Figure 39 for humpback whale distribution in the eastern North Pacific.

Alaska marine mammal stock assessments, 2005

STOCK DEFINITION AND GEOGRAPHIC RANGE Gray whales formerly occurred in the North Atlantic Ocean (Fraser 1970, Mead and Mitchell 1984), but this species is currently found only in the North Pacific (Rice et al. 1984). The following information was considered in classifying stock structure of gray whales based on the phylogeographic approach of Dizon et al. (1992): 1) Distributional data: two isolated geographic distributions in the North Pacific Ocean; 2) Population response data: the eastern North Pacific population has increased, and no evident increase in the western North Pacific; 3) Phenotypic data: unknown; and 4) Genotypic data: unknown. Based on this limited information, two stocks have been recognized in the North Pacific: the Eastern North Pacific stock, which lives along the west coast of North America (Fig. 35), and Figure 35. Approximate distribution of the Eastern North the Western North Pacific or Korean stock, Pacific stock of gray whales (shaded area). Excluding some which lives along the coast of eastern Asia Mexican waters, the entire range of this stock is depicted. (Rice 1981, Rice et al. 1984). Most of the Eastern North Pacific stock spends the summer feeding in the northern Bering and Chukchi Seas (Rice and Wolman 1971, Berzin 1984, Nerini 1984). However, gray whales have been reported feeding in the summer in waters off of Southeast Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California (Rice and Wolman 1971, Darling 1984, Nerini 1984, Rice et al. 1984). Each fall, the whales migrate south along the coast of North America from Alaska to Baja California, in Mexico (Rice and Wolman 1971), most of them starting in November or December (Rugh et al. 2001). The Eastern North Pacific stock winters mainly along the west coast of Baja California, using certain shallow, nearly landlocked lagoons and bays, and calves are born from early January to mid-February (Rice et al. 1981). The northbound migration generally begins in mid-February and continues through May (Rice et al. 1981, 1984; Poole 1984a), with cows and newborn calves migrating northward primarily between March and June along the U.S. West Coast. While most North Pacific gray whales spend the summer in the shallow waters of the northern and western Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean, some animals feed along the Pacific coast. Photo-identification studies of these animals indicate that they move widely within and between areas on the Pacific coast, are not always observed in the same area each year, and may have several year gaps between resightings in studied areas (Calambokidis and Quan 1999, Quan 2000, Calambokidis et al. 2002). The so-called “Pacific coast feeding aggregation” defines one of the areas where feeding groups occur. While some animals in this group demonstrate some site-fidelity, available information from sighting records (Calambokidis and Quan 1999, Quan 2000) and genetics (Ramakrishnan et al. 2001, Steeves 1998) indicates that this group is a component of the eastern North Pacific population and is not an isolated population unit.

Alaska marine mammal stock assessments, 2002

STOCK DEFINITION AND GEOGRAPHIC RANGE Steller sea lions range along the North Pacific Rim from northern Japan to California (Loughlin et al. 1984), with centers of abundance and distribution in the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands, respectively. The species is not known to migrate, but individuals disperse widely outside of the breeding season (late May-early July), thus potentially intermixing with animals from other areas. Despite the wide-ranging movements of juveniles and adult males in particular, exchange between rookeries by breeding adult females and males (other than between adjoining rookeries) appears low (NMFS 1995). Loughlin (1997) considered the following information when classifying stock structure based on the phylogeographic approach of Dizon et al. (1992): 1) Distributional data: geographic distribution continuous, yet a high degree of natal site fidelity and low (<10%) exchange rate of breeding animals between rookeries; 2) Population response data: substantial differences in population dynamics (York et al. 1996); 3) Phenotypic data: unknown; and 4) Genotypic data: substantial differences in Figure 1. Approximate distribution of Steller sea lions in the North Pacific. Major U.S. haulouts and rookeries (50 CFR 226.202, 27 August 1993) and active Asian haulouts and rookeries (Burkanov and Loughlin, 2005) are depicted (points). Black dashed line (144° W) indicates stock boundary (Loughlin 1997). Note: Haulouts and rookeries in British Columbia are not shown.

Alaska marine mammal stock assessments, 2015

NOTE – NMFS is in the process of reviewing humpback whale stock structure under the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) in light of the 14 Distinct Population Segments established under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) (81 FR 62259, 8 September 2016). A complete revision of the humpback whale stock assessments will be postponed until this review is complete. In the interim, new information on humpback whale mortality and serious injury is provided within this report.

CIRCULATING CONCENTRATIONS OF THYROID HORMONE IN BELUGA WHALES (DELPHINAPTERUS LEUCAS): INFLUENCE OF AGE, SEX, AND SEASON

Abstract:u2003 Thyroid hormones play a critical physiologic role in regulating protein synthesis, growth, and metabolism. To date, because no published compilation of baseline values for thyroid hormones in beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) exists, assessment of thyroid hormone concentrations in this species has been underused in clinical settings. The purpose of this study was to document the concentrations of total thyroxine (tT4) and total triiodothyronine (tT3) in healthy aquarium-maintained and free-ranging beluga whales and to determine the influence of age, sex, and season on the thyroid hormone concentrations. Archived serum samples were collected from healthy aquarium-maintained (n = 43) and free-ranging (n = 39) belugas, and serum tT4 and tT3 were measured using chemiluminescence immunoassay. The mean tT4 concentration in aquarium-maintained belugas was 5.67 ± 1.43 μg/dl and the mean tT3 concentration was 70.72 ± 2.37 ng/dl. Sex comparisons showed that aquarium-maintained males had significantly greater tT4 and tT3 (9.70 ± 4.48 μg/dl and 92.65 ± 30.55 ng/dl, respectively) than females (7.18 ± 2.82 μg/dl and 77.95 ± 20.37 ng/dl) (P = 0.004 and P = 0.013). Age comparisons showed that aquarium-maintained whales aged 1–5 yr had the highest concentrations of tT4 and tT3 (8.17 ± 0.17 μg/dl and 105.46 ± 1.98 ng/dl, respectively) (P = 0.002 and P < 0.001). tT4 concentrations differed significantly between seasons, with concentrations in winter (4.59 ± 1.09 μg/dl) being significantly decreased compared with spring (P = 0.009), summer (P < 0.0001), and fall (P < 0.0001) concentrations. There was a significant difference in tT4 and tT3 concentrations between aquarium-maintained whales (5.67 ± 1.43 μg/dl and 70.72 ± 15.57 ng/dl, respectively) and free-ranging whales (11.71 ± 3.36 μg/dl and 103.38 ± 26.45 ng/dl) (P < 0.0001 and P < 0.001). Clinicians should consider biologic and environmental influences (age, sex, and season) for a more accurate interpretation of thyroid hormone concentrations in belugas. The findings of this study provide a baseline for thyroid health monitoring and comprehensive health assessments in both aquarium-maintained and free-ranging beluga whales.

Fecal pathogen pollution: sources and patterns in water and sediment samples from the upper Cook Inlet, Alaska ecosystem

Fecal pathogens are transported from a variety of sources in multi-use ecosystems such as upper Cook Inlet (CI), Alaska, which includes the states urban center and is highly utilized by humans and animals. This study used a novel water quality testing approach to evaluate the presence and host sources of potential fecal pathogens in surface waters and sediments from aquatic ecosystems in upper CI. Matched water and sediment samples, along with effluent from a municipal wastewater treatment facility, were screened for Salmonella spp., Vibrio spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., and noroviruses. Additionally, Bacteroidales spp. for microbial source tracking, and the fecal indicator bacteria Enterococcus spp. as well as fecal coliforms were evaluated. Overall, Giardia and Vibrio were the most frequently detected potential pathogens, followed by Cryptosporidium and norovirus, while Salmonella was not detected. Sample month, matrix type, and recent precipitation were found to be significant environmental factors for protozoa or host-associated Bacteroidales marker detection, whereas location and water temperature were not. The relative contribution of host-associated markers to total fecal marker concentration was estimated using a Monte Carlo method, with the greatest relative contribution to the Bacteroidales marker concentration coming from human sources, while the remainder of the universal fecal host source signal was uncharacterized by available host-associated assays, consistent with wildlife fecal sources. These findings show how fecal indicator and pathogen monitoring, along with identifying contributing host sources, can provide evidence of coastal pathogen pollution and guidance as to whether to target human and/or animal sources for management.

Alaska marine mammal stock assessments, 2007

STOCK DEFINITION AND GEOGRAPHIC RANGE Gray whales formerly occurred in the North Atlantic Ocean (Fraser 1970, Mead and Mitchell 1984), but this species is currently found only in the North Pacific (Rice et al. 1984). The following information was considered in classifying stock structure of gray whales based on the phylogeographic approach of Dizon et al. (1992): 1) Distributional data: two isolated geographic distributions in the North Pacific Ocean; 2) Population response data: the eastern North Pacific population has increased, and no evident increase in the western North Pacific; 3) Phenotypic data: unknown; and 4) Genotypic data: unknown. Based on this limited information, two stocks have been recognized in the North Pacific: the Eastern North Pacific stock, which lives along the west coast of North America (Fig. 35), and the Western North Pacific or Korean stock, Figure 35. Approximate distribution of the Eastern North which lives along