Rodrigo Bernal

Remains of palms (Palmae) at archaeological sites in the New World: A review

A review of palm remains recorded at archaeological sites throughout the New World is presented. Remains have been found at 130 sites from the southern United States to southern Uruguay. They are of four kinds: carbonized or dry endocarps or seeds, phytoliths, pollen, and implements. Twenty-nine genera and at least 50 species of palms (i.e., about 9% of all American species) have been recorded. The oldest record dates back to 14,700b.p. for carbonized endocarp fragments of an unidentified palm in Rondônia, Brazil. The use of palms, as recorded from remains, was particularly widespread after 9000b.p. The predominant remains are endocarps ofAcrocomia, Attalea s.l.,Astrocaryum, Bactris, Syagrus, Elaeis, andOenocarpus, all of which are important sources of edible oils or edible fruits and are still widely used by aboriginal peoples. The review supports the hypothesis that human groups have played an important role in the dispersal of some palm species in the neotropics. Humanaided dispersal ofAcrocomia aculeata from South America into Central America, and ofOenocarpus bataua from northwestern Amazonia to other areas, is postulated. Archaeological remains support the hypothesis that pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes) was domesticated in the inter-Andean valleys or on the adjacent Pacific lowlands of Colombia and later introduced into the Amazon Basin.ResumenSe presenta una revisión de los registres de vestigios de palmas en yacimientos arqueológicos en el Nuevo Mundo. Se han encontrado vestigios en 130 yacimientos, desde el sur de los Estados Unidos hasta el sur de Uruguay. Los vestigios son de cuatro tipos: endocarpos quemados o secos, fitolitos, polen e implementos. Representan 29 géneros y por lo menos 50 especies de palmas (es decir, cerca del 9% de todas las especies americanas). El registro más antiguo data de 14,700a.p., para fragmentos de endocarpo carbonizados de una palma no identificada en Rondônia, Brasil. El uso de las palmas, tal como lo evidencian los vestigios, estuvo particularmente extendido después del 9000a.p. Los vestigios predominantes son endocarpos de los génerosAcrocomia, Attalea, Astrocaryum, Bactris, Syagrus, Elaeis, yOenocarpus, los cuales son fuentes importantes de aceites o frutos comestibles, todavía usados por pueblos aborígenes. La revision apoya las hipótesis según las cuales los grupos humanos han jugado un importante papel en la dispersión de algunas palmas en el neotrópico. Se postula la dispersión antropogénica deAcrocomia aculeata desde Suramérica hacia Centroamérica y deOenocarpus bataua desde el noroeste de la Amazonia hacia otras áreas. Los vestigios arqueológicos apoyan la hipótesis de que el chontaduro (Bactris gasipaes) fue domesticado en los valles interandinos o en las tierras bajas aledañas del Pacífico en Colombia, y después introducido a la Amazonia.

Palm Management in South America

We reviewed information on management of useful palms in South America. We documented management for 96 species, from incidental activities intended to increase populations of wild palms to the inclusion of palms in complex agroforestry systems. Two species, Bactris gasipaes and Parajubaea cocoides, are domesticated. Managed species are remarkably fewer than species used in the region, which suggests that harvesters often disregard the fate of the species they use. The best way of managing palms is to employ harvest methods that do not decimate the populations. Although a variety of harvesting techniques have been documented, overharvest is common, and mismanagement prevails – unnecessary felling of palms in order to harvest leaves or fruits is a widespread practice. Research should focus on assessing production in response to management practices, but eradicating the habit of destructive harvest is an obvious priority. Research on palm management must be combined with actions addressed to all stakeholders of the palm/humans system.ResumenRevisamos la información sobre manejo de palmas útiles en Suramérica. Documentamos manejo para 96 especies, desde el cuidado ocasional de palmas con el fin de incrementar las poblaciones silvestres, hasta la introducción intencional de algunas especies en chagras o en sistemas agroforestales. Dos especies, Bactris gasipaes y Parajubaea cocoides, son domesticadas. Las especies manejadas son notablemente menos que las especies útiles, lo que refleja poco interés de los cosechadores por la suerte de las especies usadas. La mejor forma de manejar las palmas es emplear métodos de cosecha que no diezmen las poblaciones. Aunque se han documentado diversas técnicas de cosecha, la sobrecosecha es común y predomina el mal manejo: tumbar innecesariamente las palmas para cosechar las hojas o los frutos es una práctica común. La investigación debería enfocarse en evaluar la respuesta de las palmas a las prácticas de manejo, pero es prioritario erradicar las prácticas de cosecha destructiva. Se debe combinar la investigación sobre manejo de palmas con acciones dirigidas a todos los actores del sistema palma/hombre.

Impact of Leaf Harvest on Populations of Lepidocaryum tenue, an Amazonian Understory Palm Used for Thatching

Leaves of the palm Lepidocaryum tenue are one of the most prized thatching materials in northwestern Amazonia. We studied the population dynamics of this stoloniferous palm in Colombian Amazonia, using ramet-based Lefkovitch matrices, and assessed the impact of leaf harvest on population structure and dynamics, through experimental defoliation. Leaf production rate of unharvested palms ranged between 0.93 leaves per year in seedlings and 1.71 in adults. Vegetative shoots produced through stolons are more important than seedlings for maintaining the population; stolons act also as a reserve to overcome damage in the population. The potential population growth rate was 8.3 % per year (λ = 1.083). Juveniles had the highest contribution to population growth, and permanence was the most important life parameter. Thus, harvest of leaves for thatching can jeopardize the population if juveniles are also harvested. An initial harvest intensity of more than 50% of the leaves in a crown, or leaving the palm with fewer than four leaves, would have a negative impact on leaf production. Although matrix modeling suggests that all adult ramets can be harvested, this must be taken with caution, as clonal integration may play an important role in population dynamics. Long-term harvest of Lepidocaryum leaves is possible, if plots are harvested in turns of four years, thus allowing palms to recover from the previous harvest. A better control on the quality of the braided tiles sold in the market would also ensure their longer duration, thus reducing the pressure on the resource.

NOTES ON OENOCARPUS (PALMAE) IN THE COLOMBIAN AMAZON

Five species ofOenocarpus from the Río Caquetá, in the Colombian Amazon, are discussed. Two of themOenocarpus simplex andOenocarpus makeru are described as new.Oenocarpus bacaba var.parvus is shown to be a synonym ofO. balickii; this species andO. minor are recorded for the first time in Colombia. Some comments on the poorly knownO. circumtextus are also given. The new findings support the inclusion ofJessenia inOenocarpus.ResumenSe discuten cinco especies deOenocarpus de la región del río Caquetá, en la Amazonia Colombiana. Dos de ellas,Oenocarpus simplex yOenocarpus makeru se describen como nuevas.Oenocarpus bacaba var.parvus es considerada un sinónimo deO. balickii, y esta especie, junto conO. minor, es registrada por primera vez en Colombia. Se da información adicional sobreO. circumtextus, una especie muy poco conocida. Los nuevos hallazgos respaldan la unión deJessenia yOenocarpus.

Use, production and conservation of palm fiber in South America: A review

Abstract South American ethnic groups traditionally use palm fiber, which provides materials for domestic, commercial, and ceremonial purposes. A literature review of 185 references was carried out in order to identify and understand the extent of palm fiber production and the sustainability of harvesting and use in South America. The reports recorded 111 palm species and 37 genera used for fiber in the region; the genera Attalea, Astrocaryum and Syagrus had the highest diversity of fiber-producing species. Mauritia flexuosa and Astrocaryum chambira were the species mostly reported and with the largest number of object types manufactured with their fibers. The geographical distribution of the species use nearly overlaps the natural distribution of palms in South America, reaching its highest diversity in northern Amazonia, where palms are used mostly by indigenous people and peasants. The techniques used for extraction, harvesting and processing are usually basic and minimal. Most species are represented by wild populations found on common lands, the little detailed information available suggests that when use is intensive it is mosly unsustainable, and those with a greater market demand usually become locally extinct. Market demand, ecosystem conservation, and management practices used to boost fiber production are the major variables determining the sustainability of fiber extraction.

Juvenile Resilience and Adult Longevity Explain Residual Populations of the Andean Wax Palm Ceroxylon quindiuense after Deforestation

Wax palms are an important element of the cloud forests in the tropical Andes. Despite heavy deforestation, the density of adults seems to be similar in deforested pastures as in forests. We aimed to infer the mechanisms responsible for this apparent resilience in pastures and we tested two hypotheses to explain it: 1) adult palms survived in pastures because they were spared from logging, and 2) adults occurred in pastures through the resilience of large juvenile rosettes, which survived through subterranean meristems and later developed into adults. For this purpose, we characterized the demographic structure of C. quindiuense in a total of 122 plots of 400 m2 in forests and pastures at two sites with contrasted land use histories in Colombia and Peru. Additionally, we implemented growth models that allowed us to estimate the age of individuals at four sites. These data were combined with information collected from local land managers in order to complete our knowledge on the land use history at each site. At two sites, the presence of old individuals up to 169 years and a wide age range evidenced that, at least, a portion of current adults in pastures were spared from logging at the time of deforestation. However, at the two other sites, the absence of older adults in pastures and the narrow age range of the populations indicated that individuals came exclusively from rosette resilience. These interpretations were consistent with the land use history of sites. In consequence, the combination of the two hypotheses (spared individuals and rosette resilience) explained patterns of C. quindiuense in pastures on a regional scale. Regeneration through subterranean meristems in palms is an important, yet overlooked mechanism of resilience, which occurs in a number of palm species and deserves being integrated in the conceptual framework of disturbance ecology.

EASTERN TUKANOAN NAMES OF THE PALM IRIARTEA DELTOIDEA: EVIDENCE OF ITS POSSIBLE PREAGRICULTURAL USE AS A STARCH SOURCE

ABSTRACT The Eastern Tukanoan of the Vaupés River region along the Colombian-Brazilian border have long used the palm Iriartea deltoidea as a durable building material. A recent study examining the linguistic roots of the local names of various palm species reveals that, in at least five languages of the Eastern Tukanoan, the contemporary name for Iriartea deltoidea suggests that it was also once a source of starch, a use not yet recorded for this species. Considering its demographic and structural characteristics, harvest of Iriartea deltoidea for starch would not be suitable for sedentary societies. We present a hypothesis that contemporary names for this palm are remnants of words from a time when the ancestors of the Eastern Tukanoan were hunter-gatherers and exploited this source of starch.

Neotypification of Colombian Palms Collected by W. Kalbreyer

Between 1877 and 1881, the botanist W. Kalbreyer traveled in northern Colombia, in the present departments of Norte de Santander (then called Santander) and Antioquia. He made extensive collections of plants, including many species of palms, 69 of which were described as new to science, mostly by Max Burret, of Berlin. Although duplicates of many of Kalbreyers collections in other families are kept at K, this is not the case for palms, most of which seem to have been left only at B. Most types of Colombian palms at B were destroyed during World War II (E. Potztal, pers. comm.), and type material is available for only 11 species (J. Dransfield, pers. comm.), sometimes only as loose fruits or fragmentary material (cf. also Balick, 1980). Current identification of Kalbreyer palms described by Burret is difficult, and must be based only on the protologues, since no authentic material has been preserved. Burrets descriptions were seldom accompanied by figures, and often lacked comments on species relationships. For a few species, other specimens determined by Burret himself as belonging to one of his taxa are available in herbaria, and two of these specimens will be here designated as neotypes or lectotypes, according to the ICBN (Voss et al., 1983). Burret, however, had a very narrow species concept, which resulted in his regarding almost every specimen he studied as a new species, and therefore there are not many determinations made by himself. For the purpose of designating neotypes of Kalbreyers palms, we have made efforts for a period of years to collect specimens at the original localities. Although most Kalbreyer specimens had a clear indication of the department in which they were collected, the precise localities given by him are often difficult to trace, since they usually refer to very definite spots, sometimes a very small creek, or just a lodging house along a mule trail (Bernal-Gonzilez, 1986). Many of these names are not included in any modern map or gazetteer, and sometimes they have been changed or forgotten. An approximate reconstruction of Kalbreyers itinerary, and the use of old maps have made it possible to trace those places, and to look for the palms again. In most cases the palms have been found still growing at the type locality. In other cases either the place cited by Kalbreyer could not be found, or the palm species were no longer extant, the vegetation in some areas having been severely changed; in such cases, we have looked for the palms in nearby, ecologically similar, areas. In the following account typified names are in bold face, followed by currently accepted names in brackets, when different. Herbarium citation is given only for the neotypes, that of the types being the same for all species: B, destroyed.

Botswanan Palm Basketry among the Wounaan of Western Colombia: Lessons from an Intercontinental Technology Transfer

Traditional palm basketry of the Ba Yei and HaMbukushu people of the Okavango delta region in Botswana was introduced in the 1970s by a missionary to the Wounaan aborigines of western Colombia, who had a related weaving technique. The African technique was quickly assimilated by the Wounaan and enriched with shapes and decoration based on their own cultural patterns. The Chocoan palm Astrocaryum standleyanum, which the Wounaan used in their traditional baskets, replaced the African Hyphaene petersiana used in Botswana. The high quality of the new basketry led to a rapid success and turned Wounaan Astrocaryum baskets into an icon among Colombian handicrafts. Market pressure led to a severe depletion of the fiber-producing palm near Indian villages in the late twentieth century, as palms were felled by the hundreds to harvest the spear leaves. Educational campaigns and the introduction of an appropriate harvest tool have subsequently reduced the impact of leaf harvest, and A. standleyanum is now protected by the Wounaan. This case pinpoints the importance of a careful resource management assessment before introducing new market pressures on a traditional plant product. It is also a good example of positive results from a sustained campaign for appropriate resource management.

Demography of the Clonal Palm Prestoea Acuminata in the Colombian Andes: Sustainable Household Extraction of Palm Hearts

Prestoea acuminata is a highland clonal palm traditionally used as a source of palm hearts by the Awá Indians of Colombia and Ecuador; its commercial use thrived in the 1980s. Extraction pressure on the resource is particularly strong during Holy Week, as campesinos use it as a substitute for meat. We studied P. acuminata demography at La Planada Reserve, southwestern Colombia, and elaborated a ramet-based matrix model to assess the impact of different palm heart harvest regimes. The 1.5 ha study area had 1182 genets, composed of 5389 ramets. Harvestable stems were 23-40 years old and accounted for 0.32% of the stable stage distribution (SSD). Ramet population asymptotic growth rate λ was 1.0485, and was more sensitive to changes in the survival of stemless ramets. Observed stage distribution (OSD) differed from predicted SSD, which suggests the population was exhibiting transient dynamics. As our census was conducted four years after a severe ENSO, we argue that the OSD could be reflecting this environmental disturbance. Thus, harvest simulations must be interpreted with caution. Although P. acuminata ramets are abundant at La Planada, the typical genet architecture, with many stemless ramets (≈20) and only 1-2 stems appropriate for palm heart extraction, accounts for a very low resource yield (127 palm hearts ha−1 in our survey). This, and its slow growth rate, make P. acuminata suitable only for household extraction. As harvest has a strong effect on sexual recruitment, we recommend a maximum annual extraction of 10% of harvestable ramets.