Roger M. Downs

Understanding maps as symbols: the development of map concepts in children.

We expect that many readers encountered this article with the beliefs that maps are highly specialized devices primarily used for wayfinding; that they represent the spatial world in a single, correct form; that they are readily transparent; and that their sole contribution to psychology is their role in externalizing environmental cognition. By discussing the myriad functions and forms of maps, by highlighting their symbolic nature, and by considering some of the misconceptions about maps, we have attempted to demonstrate the value of maps for addressing a wide range of developmental questions. Our review of past research literature suggests that research conducted within individual disciplines has both strengths and limitations. Work in the psychological tradition is characterized by attention to important subject characteristics and to carefully described and implemented research designs, procedures, coding, and analyses. At the same time, this work reveals, at best, highly restricted views about maps, and at worst, fundamental misconceptions about maps. Work in the geographic and environmental traditions, in contrast, samples a broader range of map forms and functions, but it suffers from inattention to procedural details that makes the conclusions less compelling than they might otherwise be. A conventional wisdom is emerging from the work in both traditions: That childrens map understanding occurs extremely early and extremely easily. The limitations of both research traditions, however, suggest the need for caution in accepting this view. Developmental and cartographic theories provide a compelling reason to reexamine the early and easy view and suggest the need for alternative conceptual and empirical approaches. We have argued that future work should integrate the traditions of psychology and geography. Illustrative data from an interdisciplinary program of research were presented. We described work demonstrating the gradual and difficult process of mastering the representational and geometric correspondences that link the map to its referent in the world. Our data suggest that there are significant achievements in map conceptualization (the understanding of the concept of a map), map identification (understanding the formal components of a map), and map utilization (the ability to use maps). Our data support the view that maps are not transparent and that childrens abilities to understand, use, and create maps are linked to their developing representational and spatial skills. In concluding, we should acknowledge that we have deliberately pushed interpretations about understanding maps as symbolic representations to the extreme. The reason for this strategy is simple: We believe that work on maps--both in the public schools and in academia--is assumed to be an expendable and irrelevant luxury.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Understanding person-space-map relations: cartographic and developmental perspectives

Drawing from cognitive-developmental and cartographic theory, we tested childrens understanding of person-map-space relations. After introducing maps of the classroom, an adult moved to different positions in the room and pointed straight ahead. Five- to 12-year-old children (N= 259) placed colored arrow stickers on the map to show the persons location and heading, once when the map was aligned with the room and once when rotated 180°. Performance was better on the aligned condition and when headings were parallel to the nearby wall; most younger children failed to understand point of view; and sex differences favored boys. Data from 168 children given additional spatial tasks were consistent with the hypothesized importance of projective spatial concepts for mapping

The Need for Research in Geography Education: It Would be Nice to Have Some Data

Abstract The field of geography education is sadly lacking in empirical data that might inform and underpin decisions about standard setting, curriculum design, materials development, teaching strategies, and assessment procedures. Large quantities of high-quality data are necessary if geography is to be successfully implemented in the American education system. This article advances four needs that, if met, would generate the data necessary to make the case for geography in Americas schools. We need a new attitude towards research, a series of baseline studies, a research agenda, and a research clearinghouse if we are to make a convincing case for geography in Americas schools.

Developing an understanding of graphic representations in children and adults: The case of GEO-graphics☆

Abstract Graphic representations are important for symbolic thought and communication. Here we provide a general definition of graphic representations and discuss some similarities and differences to more commonly studied linguistic representations. We then focus on characteristics of one particular type of graphic representation—those that represent the world or “geo” and hence, “GEO-graphics.” Through the use of models from cartography, we highlight qualities of representational and geometric correspondences between the referent space and the GEO-graphic representation, and suggest that an understanding of these graphics rests on the childs developing representational and spatial skills more generally. Empirical data on elementary-school childrens interpretations of GEO-graphics illustrate the emergence of understanding in this domain. Finally, we suggest that the development of childrens understanding of representation may be characterized as progressing from syncretism, to syncretic representation, to naive conventional representation, and finally to meta-representation.

Children’s Understanding of Maps

A cursory reading of the chapters in these volumes on Cognitive Processes and Spatial Orientation in Animal and Man might leave the impression that maps play a central role in the study of both process and behavior. Maps and the associated mapping process appear in a variety of guises. As cognitive maps, for example, they provide the central organizing concept for describing the functions and properties of internal spatial representations (see Downs, 1981a, b). When paired with the idea of a compass, maps provide the basis for understanding navigational behavior in a wide range of species. As data generating and data representing techniques, maps play a central role in research methodology (Downs, 1985).

Fostering geographic literacy from early childhood: The contributions of interdisciplinary research☆

Abstract A disturbing level of geographic ignorance in both children and adults has been well documented in recent years. We argue that educational programs to remedy this ignorance will be successful only if they draw upon an interdisciplinary approach combining the fields of geography and developmental psychology. After discussing the value of this approach in general, we describe some empirical data showing the links between childrens developing projective spatial concepts and their ability to produce and use maps of familiar environments. We illustrate the value of this approach by discussing sample classroom activities, and urge the importance of developing pregeographic or premapping skills during the preschool years.

Geography and the Mind: An Exploration of Perceptual Geography

confined to our contributions to this volume. The problem lies not in length restrictions, for more space would not resolve it. It lies not in competence because, false modesty aside, we are as well-equipped as fellow workers in the field of perceptual geography. The problem is in the nature of the task itself. In what way is it possible to summarize and synthesize the achievements of a 25-year period? We would like to do justice to the work of our colleagues. But what does justice entail in this

The geographic eye: Seeing through GIS?1

Vermeers sixteenth-century painting ‘The Geographer’ captures the geographer in the act of doing geography, but looking up and away from a map. As professional geographers, many of us now do geography ‘through’ geographic information systems. We too need to look up from the screen in order to understand the act of thinking geographically. With such an understanding, we can design geographic information systems that are both developmentally appropriate and that support the development of the geographic eye. This paper offers a first approximation to a description of the structure and function of the geographic eye whose operation can be supported by a geographic information system.

MapStats for Kids: Making Geographic and Statistical Facts Available to Children

Abstract Statistical and geographical literacy is essential for our daily lives. A new web portal for middle school students, published on the federal government statistics website, supports geographic and statistical education by providing age-appropriate online learning activities that teach how to use statistical summaries and their graphic representations. The content of the learning activities is closely related to the National Geography Standards and the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. On average, the web portal receives 300 visitors per day.

Popularization and Geography: An Inseparable Relationship

Geography in America is inseparably entwined with popularization: historically from its inception, structurally in its composition, and functionally in its mission. Despite its centrality to geography, the role of popularization remains largely ignored and therefore is poorly understood. To put popularization into a conceptual and historical context, I explore two public debates about popularization: one structural, involving the rationale for the separation of the National Geographic Society and the Association of American Geographers, and the other functional, involving conflicts between the popular intellectual and academic geographic reviewers of a popular text, Van Loons Geography. Using analytical frameworks taken from the history and sociology of science and communication studies, I show how issues of demarcation, authority, and authenticity have, through debates about popularization, shaped the history and current structure of the geographic enterprise.