Rolf Schwonke

The worked-example effect: Not an artefact of lousy control conditions

Recently it has been argued that the worked-example effect, as postulated by Cognitive Load Theory, might only occur when compared to unsupported problem-solving, but not when compared to well-supported or tutored problem-solving as instantiated, for example, in Cognitive Tutors. In two experiments, we compared a standard Cognitive Tutor with a version that was enriched with faded worked examples. In Experiment 1, students in the example condition needed less learning time to acquire a comparable amount of procedural skills and conceptual understanding. In Experiment 2, the efficiency advantage was replicated. In addition, students in the example condition acquired a deeper conceptual understanding. The present findings demonstrate that the worked-example effect is indeed robust and can be found even when compared to well-supported learning by problem-solving.

The use of public learning diaries in blended learning

Learning diaries—as we employ them—are students’ written reflections of their learning experiences and outcomes over the course of university seminars. The writing of such diaries is ‘tutored’ by a computer program: eHELp supports the writing of sophisticated learning diaries through a modelling and scaffolding of the phases of planning, production and revision. In addition, the learning diaries get published—by uploading them in a cooperation platform—so that the learners can read and discuss their peers’ diaries. The main function of such public learning diaries is to enrich traditional university courses (Blended Learning) with additional elaborative, organisational, critical reasoning, and metacognitive activities in order to foster a deeper processing and better retention of the contents to be learnt. We would like to present the educational rationale of our approach and report the findings of corresponding empirical studies.

Worked examples and tutored problem solving: redundant or synergistic forms of support?

The current research investigates a combination of two instructional approaches, tutored problem solving and worked examples. Tutored problem solving with automated tutors has proven to be an effective instructional method. Worked-out examples have been shown to be an effective complement to untutored problem solving, but it is largely unknown whether they are an effective complement to tutored problem solving. Further, while computer-based learning environments offer the possibility of adaptively transitioning from examples to problems while tailoring to an individual learner, the effectiveness of such machine-adapted example fading is largely unstudied. To address these research questions, one lab and one classroom experiment were conducted. Both studies compared a standard Cognitive Tutor with two example-enhanced Cognitive Tutors, in which the fading of worked-out examples occurred either in a fixed way or adaptively. Results indicate that the adaptive fading of worked-out examples leads to higher transfer performance on delayed posttests than the other two methods.

Enhancing computer-supported writing of learning protocols by adaptive prompts

Cognitive and metacognitive prompts are a central support procedure in eHELp a computer-based environment that supports the writing of learning protocols. In order to investigate the effectiveness of adapting prompts, 79 students revised a learning protocol in eHELp either supported by prompts that were adapted on the basis of the results of an integrated learning-strategy questionnaire or a meta-knowledge test, respectively, by randomly selected prompts, or without any support. Adaptive prompts improved the quality of the learning protocols and fostered the acquisition of declarative knowledge and deep understanding, irrespective of the applied diagnostic instrument. In conclusion, open-ended learning tasks like the writing of learning protocols can be made more effective by adaptive support based on prior strategy assessment.

Effects of different ratios of worked solution steps and problem solving opportunities on cognitive load and learning outcomes

A crucial challenge for instructional designers is to determine the amount of support that is most beneficial for learning. This experiment investigated effects of different ratios of worked solution steps (high assistance) and to-be-solved problem steps (low assistance) on cognitive skill acquisition in geometry. High-school students (N=125) worked on a geometry lesson in a Cognitive Tutor under five different ratios (from zero worked steps and five to-be-solved steps to four worked steps and one to-be-solved step). Effects on cognitive load and learning outcomes were assessed. We expected the effectiveness of different ratios to vary with the type of learning outcomes (i.e., procedural vs. conceptual knowledge) and the difficulty of the to-be-learned principles. Results showed that for procedural knowledge (but not for conceptual knowledge) problem solving alone was most beneficial for the acquisition of procedural knowledge related to an easy principle. For a difficult principle, no ratio of worked steps and problem solving showed an advantage over another. Problem solving induced more extraneous load than studying worked examples. Thus, in determining optimal amounts of guidance type of knowledge and difficulty of the single to-be learned knowledge chunks should be considered.

Activation of Learning Strategies in Writing Learning Journals

Writing learning journals is a method of fostering the application of learning strategies. However, students often do not spontaneously apply many learning strategies in writing learning journals. Prompts can be used to address this deficit. The present study analyzed the effects of prompts with different specificity on the application of learning strategies. High school students from two classrooms (N = 51) wrote learning journals in mathematics in two consecutive weeks. They received cognitive and metacognitive prompts for writing the learning journals. In a within-subjects design, students once received nonspecific and once received specific prompts. We counterbalanced whether specific prompts or nonspecific prompts were presented first. Specific prompts increased the quantity of cognitive learning strategies and, in part, the diversity of the specific learning strategies. Thus, production deficiencies could be overcome. However, the quality of learning strategies could not be enhanced. The deficits in...

Making Better Use of Multiple Representations: How Fostering Metacognition Can Help

Modern learning technology (e.g., hypermedia systems) usually provides information in various forms such as text, “realistic” pictures, formal graphs, or algebraic equations in order to foster learning. However, it is well known that learners usually make sub-optimal use of such multiple external representations. In this chapter, we present a series of experiments with older students (senior high-school and up) that analyzed the effects of two metacognitive intervention procedures: self-explanation prompts and “instruction for use” (information on how to use multiple representations). Basically, both interventions foster conceptual understanding and procedural skills. However, there are important boundary conditions. For example, if learners have little prior knowledge they cannot react productively to self-explanation prompts.

Development and Evaluation of a Computer-Based Learning Environment for Teachers: Assessment of Learning Strategies in Learning Journals

Training teachers to assess important components of self-regulated learning such as learning strategies is an important, yet somewhat neglected, aspect of the integration of self-regulated learning at school. Learning journals can be used to assess learning strategies in line with cyclical process models of self-regulated learning, allowing for rich formative feedback. Against this background, we developed a computer-based learning environment (CBLE) that trains teachers to assess learning strategies with learning journals. The contents of the CBLE and its instructional design were derived from theory. The CBLE was further shaped by research in a design-based manner. Finally, in two evaluation studies, student teachers (; ) worked with the CBLE. We analyzed satisfaction, interest, usability, and assessment skills. Additionally, in evaluation study 2, effects of an experimental variation on motivation and assessment skills were tested. We found high satisfaction, interest, and good usability, as well as satisfying assessment skills, after working with the CBLE. Results show that teachers can be trained to assess learning strategies in learning journals. The developed CBLE offers new perspectives on how to support teachers in fostering learning strategies as central component of effective self-regulated learning at school.

Computergestütztes Schreiben von Lernprotokollen

Zusammenfassung. Universitares Lernen fordert von den Studierenden die Entwicklung effektiver Lern- und Arbeitsstrategien. Eine solche Strategie zum Erwerb flexibel anwendbaren Wissens ist die Lern...