Ronnie Vernooy

Farmer cooperatives in China : diverse pathways to sustainable rural Development

In the midst of Chinas agricultural reform, new forms of farmer organization have emerged, some initiated by farmers themselves, but most through government intervention. Based on national survey data complemented by two in-depth case studies of rural cooperatives, an analysis is made of the roles and significance of these new farmer organizations. Chinese rural cooperatives predominantly facilitate economic cooperation and market integration. This is supported by agricultural policies and the Cooperative Law of 2007 oriented towards the commoditization of smallholder farming. There are some cooperatives not primarily motivated by commodity imperatives, but by the fulfilment of agro-ecological and socio-cultural functions. To date, the roles and significance of this non-mainstream type of rural cooperative has not received much attention. If China is to become a ‘green society’ as proclaimed by the government, more attention and support to this type of cooperatives seems warranted.

Twenty-five years of international exchanges of plant genetic resources facilitated by the CGIAR genebanks: a case study on global interdependence

This article analyses 25xa0years of data about international movements of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA), facilitated by the gene banks hosted by seven centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research. It identifies trends in the movements of PGRFA for use in research and development, and describes the diversity of those resources transferred over time. The paper also presents data on the number of countries involved in the global exchanges, analyses their development status and describes their role as providers and/or recipients, providing a picture of the breadth of these global exchanges. We highlight that it is primarily developing and transition economies that have participated in the flows, and that the transferred germplasm has been largely used within their public agricultural research and development programmes. We conclude that, when provided the opportunity of facilitated access, countries will use a wide diversity of germplasm from many other countries, sub-regions and continents as inputs into their agricultural research and development programmes. We highlight the importance of enabling the continuation of the non-monetary benefits from international access to germplasm. We discuss the implications for the process of development and reform of the multilateral system of access and benefit sharing under International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.

Reading the Weather: Climate Risk Adaptation in Mongolia

This article investigates the underlying forces that have led to the disastrous impact of recent extreme climate events in Mongolia and explores strategies to better deal with such events. In-depth field research was carried out following the 2010 extreme winter known as dzud making use of a combination of participatory research techniques, individual and focus group interviews, and surveys. The harsh winter of 2010 was one of the worst of its kind resulting in the death of eight and a half million livestock. In the last decade, this kind of extreme weather event has been on the rise. Herders have encountered serious difficulties in coping with them, preparing for them and mitigating their impact. Following the transition from a Soviet-dominated regime to democracy and a free market, pastoral livelihoods have become much more exposed to three interrelated forces: climate change and weather dynamics, natural resource degradation, in particular of grasslands and water, and rapid societal change. Co-management of natural resources is a form of collective adaptive management that reduces risks related to climate and societal change. Co-management could benefit from the timely delivery of improved weather forecasting, in particular on a local level. The scaling-out of co-management would benefit from stronger government support in terms of legal protection of new organisational forms, technical and financial support, and improved rural services. The results of this research deepen our understanding of the complexity of the forces that have made herding much riskier. It also opens a window to the benefits of co-management which the government of Mongolia aims to scale out nationally as a means to deal with climate change and related risks.

The importance and challenges of crop germplasm interdependence: the case of Bhutan

An analysis of food crop germplasm flows into and out of Bhutan was carried out to determine the extent of reliance of Bhutanese agriculture on introduced germplasm. Methods used included literature review, key informant interviews, field visits and crop pedigree analysis. Bhutan has been introducing foreign germplasm since the 1960s. By December 2015, about 300 varieties of 46 food crops including several non-traditional crops were introduced. Germplasm sources include CGIAR centres such as IRRI, CIMMYT, ICARDA, and AVRDC and countries such as Bangladesh, India, Japan, Korea, Nepal, and Thailand. Pedigree analysis of rice varieties indicated that 74% of the released varieties originated in other countries. Using imported germplasm, Bhutan has formally released over 180 varieties of cereals, fruits and vegetables. Initially, the germplasm flow was largely unregulated, but the country has been developing formal exchange mechanisms with the creation of the National Biodiversity Centre (NBC) in 1995. Findings point to a strong reliance on external germplasm for the country’s major food crops. International germplasm exchanges will remain important to deal with new environmental and climatic conditions and given the limited national plant breeding capacity. National agricultural policy should give higher priority to collaborative development of new crops in the Himalayan region and beyond.

Developing an Agricultural Biodiversity Policy for China

China does not have an agricultural biodiversity policy. Given the significant size and importance of the countrys agricultural resource base, the elaboration of a specific institutional framework for agricultural biodiversity could be instrumental to harmonize the many different and sometimes overlapping or conflicting policies and laws that at present impinge on it. Based on three field experiences, recommendations are made to elaborate a more supportive institutional framework, covering, in particular, recognition, rights, roles, responsibilities, mechanisms, and incentives for community-based and collaborative efforts and innovations concerning in situ conservation of agricultural biodiversity as well as crop improvement.