Rosa Duarte

Water use in the Spanish economy: an input-output approach

Against the background of the water limitations that often appear in Spain, the aim of this paper is to study the behaviour of the productive sectors of the Spanish economy as direct and indirect consumers of water. To that end, we employ input � /output analysis, with the particular methodology being based on the linkages analysis known as the Hypothetical Extraction Method (HEM). We have introduced three modifications to this method. First, the valuation is made in terms of water consumption. Secondly, we obtain the components of the impacts of each block of activity into which the economy is divided, with these components being described as the internal effect, mixed linkage, net or external backward linkage, and net or external forward linkage. Thirdly, this methodology is used to detect key sectors. Our results confirm the marked importance of the Agriculture, Food and Other Services blocks as regards the direct and indirect consumption of water in general. We also find that Other Services, Chemicals, Metals and Electronics and Agriculture blocks play an important role in explaining the consumption of drinking water. Moreover, the HEM analysis allows us to classify productive sectors according to their forward or backward linkage character in a way that is more precise than that permitted by earlier methods. Finally, this methodology can be extended to other types of environmental pressures. # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

CO2 emissions embodied in international trade: evidence for Spain

Abstract The objective of this paper is to analyse the sectoral impacts that Spanish international trade relations have on present levels of atmospheric pollution using an input–output model. We try to evaluate the exports and imports of the Spanish economy in terms of the direct and indirect CO 2 emissions (CO 2 embodied) generated in Spain and abroad. The results show a slightly exporting behaviour in the Spanish economy which, nevertheless, hides important pollution interchanges. Moreover, the sectors transport material, mining and energy, non-metallic industries, chemical and metals are the most relevant CO 2 exporters and other services, construction, transport material and food the biggest CO 2 importers, and those whose final demands also embody more than 70% of the CO 2 emissions.

Comparison of energy intensities in European Union countries. Results of a structural decomposition analysis

Abstract This work proposes an input–output structural decomposition analysis model to identify the sources of the differences in the energetic intensities of the European Union countries. Given an economic structure, a determined composition of the final demand and determined direct energy intensities by countries, the work studies to what extent these factors explain the difference in aggregate energy intensities that are observed for different European Union countries. On the basis of this information, indicators are constructed by sectors and countries that allow us to identify the role that each sector or country plays as an energy consumer. The results show that the aggregate/total energy differences in Europe are strongly influenced by the direct energy intensity effect and by the demand effect, without the different economic structures of the countries being an important factor in the explanation of these differences. The metallurgical and manufacturing products sectors are identified as the most intensive in the aggregate energy intensity.

Multiregional input-output model for the evaluation of Spanish water flows.

We construct a multiregional input-output model for Spain, in order to evaluate the pressures on the water resources, virtual water flows, and water footprints of the regions, and the water impact of trade relationships within Spain and abroad. The study is framed with those interregional input-output models constructed to study water flows and impacts of regions in China, Australia, Mexico, or the UK. To build our database, we reconcile regional IO tables, national and regional accountancy of Spain, trade and water data. Results show an important imbalance between origin of water resources and final destination, with significant water pressures in the South, Mediterranean, and some central regions. The most populated and dynamic regions of Madrid and Barcelona are important drivers of water consumption in Spain. Main virtual water exporters are the South and Central agrarian regions: Andalusia, Castile-La Mancha, Castile-Leon, Aragon, and Extremadura, while the main virtual water importers are the industrialized regions of Madrid, Basque country, and the Mediterranean coast. The paper shows the different location of direct and indirect consumers of water in Spain and how the economic trade and consumption pattern of certain areas has significant impacts on the availability of water resources in other different and often drier regions.

Production Chains and Linkage Indicators

This paper uses a framework of production chains, which emerge from the vertical integration processes, in order to propose a general definition of linkage indicators. This definition is based on blocks of sectors and offers, among others, the following advantages. A reduction in the aggregation requirement, the resolution of the problems associated with the so-called distribution matrices, an easier analysis of the linkage components and, finally, the possibility to shed light on the links between Hypothetical Extraction Methods and sectoral analyses. Moreover, because of its general form, it helps to identify analogies between different types of indicators.

An Economic Model for Water Allocation in North Eastern Spain

The aim of this paper is to construct and apply a model for the allocation of water between two competing users, namely irrigation and hydropower. The model is applied in a case study of a specific water system located in North Eastern Spain. Starting with an irrigation-hydropower joint income function, we develop a constrained maximization process that takes into account the environmental, institutional and actual priority of the water rights. The resulting solution can be useful as a guide for potential bargains between users. Furthermore, we evaluate the results for different supply (precipitation) and water allotments (increase in irrigated land). The results show that there are sufficient incentives so as to reach agreements that lead to improvements in a Pareto sense without side payments.

INPUT–OUTPUT AND WATER: INTRODUCTION TO THE SPECIAL ISSUE

This editorial constitutes the introduction to the special issue of Economic Systems Research on Input–Output and Water. We provide a general overview of current water problems and the role that input–output analysis can play in the research of different water issues and their relationship with the economic activity. We also introduce the five papers in this special issue.

HOUSEHOLDS’ BEHAVIOUR AND ENVIRONMENTAL EMISSIONS IN A REGIONAL ECONOMY

Households have significant demand-side potential to drive reductions in atmospheric emissions, including both direct and indirect emissions. Our analysis focuses on the behaviour of a regional economy (Aragon, Spain) and its impact on greenhouse gases (GHG) and sulphur dioxide (SO2). Using a CGE model, we simulate scenarios and evaluate the environmental impact of adopting changes considered in the Aragonese Climate Change and Clean Energy Strategy. Specifically, we analyse the impact of electricity savings and the promotion of public transport (bus or train) versus private car use. The results indicate that 1 MWh of saving in electricity consumption by households could reduce emissions of GHG by 0.112 kt of equivalent CO2 and 8.209 kg of SO2 with a shift in demand preferences and 0.022 kt of equivalent CO2 and 7.612 kg of SO2 with an efficiency improvement. Moreover, household changes in demand preferences regarding private/public transport, also contribute to reduce emissions.

Water Rates And The Responsibilities Of Direct, Indirect And End-Users In Spain

Irrigation is the main user of water in Spain, and the price paid for this resource has long been lower than its cost. The recent EU Water Framework Directive requires that all costs be recovered, but application has had perverse effects. In some cases, farms have become economically unviable, while in others, cultivation has intensified and water consumption has increased. This paper applies a slightly modified version of the computable general equilibrium model developed by the International Food Policy Research Institute (Lofgren et al., 2002), to a SAM (Social Accounting Matrix) of the province of Huesca in north-eastern Spain. The model disaggregates the agricultural sectors into irrigated and unirrigated farming, taking into account the improvements in irrigation efficiency. Within this framework, we analyse different payment scenarios affecting direct users, exporters and end-users in order to examine user responsibilities, the impact of international markets and macroeconomic effects on agriculture and industry in Spain.

The Influence of the Family, the School, and the Group on the Environmental Attitudes of European Students.

The attitudes of young people arise from an intense interaction with their social groups of reference, and in this work we examine the extent to which this background conditions the individual environmental attitudes of the young. Using data provided by the PISA 2006 survey for the European Union, we test for the influence of the family, the characteristics of the school, and the social interactions or school peer group on attitudes toward the environment. The existence of social interactions, as well as the important role of family characteristics and school activities, are confirmed. The results allow us to emphasize the importance of the social context of the adolescent, and the need to take this into account as a channel that amplifies the influence of specific environmental education strategies.