Rosaura Hernández-Rivas

Telomeric heterochromatin propagation and histone acetylation control mutually exclusive expression of antigenic variation genes in malaria parasites.

Malaria parasites use antigenic variation to avoid immune clearance and increase the duration of infection in the human host. Variation at the surface of P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes is mediated by the differential control of a family of surface antigens encoded by var genes. Switching of var gene expression occurs in situ, mostly from telomere-associated loci, without detectable DNA alterations, suggesting that it is controlled by chromatin structure. We have identified chromatin modifications at telomeres that spread far into telomere-proximal regions, including var gene loci (>50 kb). One type of modification is mediated by a protein homologous to yeast Sir2 called PfSir2, which forms a chromosomal gradient of heterochromatin structure and histone hypoacetylation. Upon activation of a specific telomere-associated var gene, PfSir2 is removed from the promoter region and acetylation of histone occurs. Our data demonstrate that mutually exclusive transcription of var genes is linked to the dynamic remodeling of chromatin.

Differential association of Orc1 and Sir2 proteins to telomeric domains in Plasmodium falciparum

Telomeres have the capacity to recruit proteins that facilitate the spreading of heterochromatin into subtelomeric DNA regions. In the human protozoan pathogen Plasmodium falciparum, the telomere-associated protein Sir2 has been shown to control the silencing of members of virulence genes at some, but not all, chromosome-end loci, indicating that additional proteins are involved in telomere position effect. Here, we identified, in P. falciparum, a novel telomere-associated protein that displays homology with the origin-of-recognition-complex 1 protein Orc1. Antibodies raised against this P. falciparum protein localized to telomeric clusters in the nuclear periphery and the nucleolus. It was found that, prior to DNA replication, P. falciparum Orc1 and Sir2 undergo drastic subcellular reorganization, such as dissociation from the telomere cluster and spreading into the nucleus and parasite cytoplasm. Relocation of Orc1 and Sir2 was also linked to the partial dissociation of telomere clusters. Super gel-shift and chromatin-immunoprecipitation experiments showed the physical association of Orc1 with telomere repeats but revealed a differential association with adjacent non-coding repeat DNA elements. Our data suggest that Plasmodium telomeres might fold back and that Orc1 cooperates with Sir2 in telomeric silencing.

PfAlbas constitute a new eukaryotic DNA/RNA-binding protein family in malaria parasites

In Plasmodium falciparum, perinuclear subtelomeric chromatin conveys monoallelic expression of virulence genes. However, proteins that directly bind to chromosome ends are poorly described. Here we identify a novel DNA/RNA-binding protein family that bears homology to the archaeal protein Alba (Acetylation lowers binding affinity). We isolated three of the four PfAlba paralogs as part of a molecular complex that is associated with the P. falciparum-specific TARE6 (Telomere-Associated Repetitive Elements 6) subtelomeric region and showed in electromobility shift assays (EMSAs) that the PfAlbas bind to TARE6 repeats. In early blood stages, the PfAlba proteins were enriched at the nuclear periphery and partially co-localized with PfSir2, a TARE6-associated histone deacetylase linked to the process of antigenic variation. The nuclear location changed at the onset of parasite proliferation (trophozoite-schizont), where the PfAlba proteins were also detectable in the cytoplasm in a punctate pattern. Using single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) probes in EMSAs, we found that PfAlbas bind to ssRNA, albeit with different binding preferences. We demonstrate for the first time in eukaryotes that Alba-like proteins bind to both DNA and RNA and that their intracellular location is developmentally regulated. Discovery of the PfAlbas may provide a link between the previously described subtelomeric non-coding RNA and the regulation of antigenic variation.

A distinct 5' flanking var gene region regulates Plasmodium falciparum variant erythrocyte surface antigen expression in placental malaria.

The Plasmodium falciparum multigene var family codes for approximately 50 variant adhesive proteins expressed in a mutually exclusive manner at the surface of infected red blood cells (iRBCs). Switching expression of var genes can lead to fundamental changes in the adhesive and antigenic properties of iRBCs. For example, a specific phenotypic switch in adhesion from CD36 to chondroitin sulphate A (CSA) is associated with malaria pathogenesis in pregnant women. The factors and DNA elements that control the expression of a particular member of the var gene family during gestational malaria remains enigmatic. Here, we report that the subtelomeric FCR3 varCSA is expressed under the control of a unique DNA element of 1.8 kb, whereas the other members of the var multigene family are flanked by common regulatory elements. The 5′varCSA‐type element is conserved as a single copy in laboratory strains and clinical isolates from Brazil and West Africa and contains two distinct repetitive elements of 150 bp and 60 bp respectively. The 5′varCSA‐type sequence tags a var gene in the 3D7 genome that is homologous to the FCR3 varCSA gene. A recombinant DBLγ domain of this var gene showed specific binding to CSA. This subtelomeric varCSA gene is transcribed in the opposite sense when compared with the usual orientation of telomere‐adjacent var genes. This unique arrangement might explain why the varCSA gene is relatively conserved in genetically distinct parasites despite being located in a highly recombinogenic chromosome compartment. The 5′ untranslated region (UTR) of the varCSA‐type sequence is also transcribed in placental isolates that bind to CSA, illustrating an important role for the unique 5′varCSA‐type sequence in the regulation of var genes involved in malaria pathogenesis in pregnant women. However, this promoter is not always found to be transcribing var genes selected for expression of products that bind to CSA in vitro. Our work identifies a sequence tag for the identification of varCSA genes in placental isolates for the first time.

Two long non-coding RNAs generated from subtelomeric regions accumulate in a novel perinuclear compartment in Plasmodium falciparum

Chromosome ends have been implicated in the default silencing of clonally variant gene families in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. These chromosome regions are organized into heterochromatin, as defined by the presence of a repressive histone H3 lysine 9 trimethylated marker and heterochromatin protein 1. Here, we show that the non-coding subtelomeric region adjacent to virulence genes forms facultative heterochromatin in a cell cycle-dependent manner. We demonstrate that telomere-associated repeat elements (TAREs) and telomeres are transcribed as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) during schizogony. Northern blot assays revealed two classes of lncRNAs: a ~4-kb transcript composed of telomere sequences and a TARE-3 element, and a >6-kb transcript composed of 21-bp repeats from TARE-6. These lncRNAs are transcribed by RNA polymerase II as single-stranded molecules. RNA-FISH analysis showed that these lncRNAs form several nuclear foci during the schizont stage, whereas in the ring stage, they are located in a single perinuclear compartment that does not co-localize with any known nuclear subcompartment. Furthermore, the TARE-6 lncRNA is predicted to form a stable and repetitive hairpin structure that is able to bind histones. Consequently, the characterization of the molecular interactions of these lncRNAs with nuclear proteins may reveal novel modes of gene regulation and nuclear function in P. falciparum.

L10 ribosomal protein from Entamoeba histolytica share structural and functional homologies with QM/Jif-1: proteins with extraribosomal functions

In the present work, the complete amino acid sequence of the Entamoeba histolytica ribosomal protein L10 (EhL10) is reported. cDNA of 630bp revealed an open reading frame that encodes a protein of 210 amino acids. Analysis of EhL10 ribosomal protein revealed 75% similarity and 57% identity with QM protein from Homo sapiens and 78 and 60%, respectively, with Arabidopsis thaliana. Western blot analysis of ribosomal proteins from E. histolytica showed that EhL10 protein is part of the ribosomal complex. Immunofluorescence analysis of EhL10 distribution in a transfected E. histolytica strain showed that EhL10 protein was mainly localized in the nucleus of trophozoites. Overexpression of EhL10 ribosomal protein in trophozoites transfected with the pExEhNeo/EhL10 vector exhibited a 60% reduction in cellular growth. DNA mobility-shift assays demonstrated that EhL10 ribosomal protein was able to destabilize the activating protein 1 (AP-1) complex binding specifically to the c-Jun-like protein. It is proposed in this study that the complex formation of EhL10 with c-Jun-like protein interferes with transcriptional activation of genes controlled by Jun (i.e. gene involved in cell growth). It is also being reported identification of a member of the AP-1 complex, the c-Jun-like protein, in nuclear extracts of E. histolytica using human-specific antibodies against this protein. The observations suggest that EhL10 may have an extraribosomal function in E. histolytica involved in suppression of cell proliferation in E. histolytica similar to the QM protein.

Gene organization and sequence analyses of transfer RNA genes in Trypanosomatid parasites.

BackgroundThe protozoan pathogens Leishmania major, Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi (the Tritryps) are parasites that produce devastating human diseases. These organisms show very unusual mechanisms of gene expression, such as polycistronic transcription. We are interested in the study of tRNA genes, which are transcribed by RNA polymerase III (Pol III). To analyze the sequences and genomic organization of tRNA genes and other Pol III-transcribed genes, we have performed an in silico analysis of the Tritryps genome sequences.ResultsOur analysis indicated the presence of 83, 66 and 120 genes in L. major, T. brucei and T. cruzi, respectively. These numbers include several previously unannotated selenocysteine (Sec) tRNA genes. Most tRNA genes are organized into clusters of 2 to 10 genes that may contain other Pol III-transcribed genes. The distribution of genes in the L. major genome does not seem to be totally random, like in most organisms. While the majority of the tRNA clusters do not show synteny (conservation of gene order) between the Tritryps, a cluster of 13 Pol III genes that is highly syntenic was identified. We have determined consensus sequences for the putative promoter regions (Boxes A and B) of the Tritryps tRNA genes, and specific changes were found in tRNA-Sec genes. Analysis of transcription termination signals of the tRNAs (clusters of Ts) showed differences between T. cruzi and the other two species. We have also identified several tRNA isodecoder genes (having the same anticodon, but different sequences elsewhere in the tRNA body) in the Tritryps.ConclusionA low number of tRNA genes is present in Tritryps. The overall weak synteny that they show indicates a reduced importance of genome location of Pol III genes compared to protein-coding genes. The fact that some of the differences between isodecoder genes occur in the internal promoter elements suggests that differential control of the expression of some isoacceptor tRNA genes in Tritryps is possible. The special characteristics found in Boxes A and B from tRNA-Sec genes from Tritryps indicate that the mechanisms that regulate their transcription might be different from those of other tRNA genes.

Telomeric heterochromatin in Plasmodium falciparum.

Until very recently, little was known about the chromatin structure of the telomeres and subtelomeric regions in Plasmodium falciparum. In yeast and Drosophila melanogaster, chromatin structure has long been known to be an important aspect in the regulation and functioning of these regions. Telomeres and subtelomeric regions are enriched in epigenetic marks that are specific to heterochromatin, such as methylation of lysine 9 of histone H3 and lysine 20 of histone H4. In P. falciparum, histone modifications and the presence of both the heterochromatin “writing” (PfSir2, PKMT) and “reading” (PfHP1) machinery at telomeric and subtelomeric regions indicate that these regions are likely to have heterochromatic structure that is epigenetically regulated. This structure may be important for telomere functions such as the silencing of the var gene family implicated in the cytoadherence and antigenic variation of these parasites.

EhNCABP166: A nucleocytoplasmic actin-binding protein from Entamoeba histolytica

The actin cytoskeleton consists of multiple actin binding proteins (ABPs) that participate cooperatively in different cellular functions such as the maintenance of polarity and cell motility as well as the invasion of target cells and regulation of gene expression, among others. Due to the important role of ABPs in the pathogenesis of Entamoeba histolytica, the role of a new nucleocytoplasmic ABP from E. histolytica named EhNCABP166 was investigated. The EhNCABP166 gene encodes a protein with an estimated molecular weight of 166kDa. Structurally, this peptide is composed of two CH domains arranged in tandem at the N-terminus of the protein, followed by an alpha-helical region containing a number of different domains with a low level of homology. Two (Bin1/Amphiphysin/Rvs167) (BAR) domains, one GTPase-binding/formin 3 homology (GBD/FH3) domain, three Bcl2-associated athanogene (BAG) domains, one basic-leucine zipper (bZIP) domain and one poly(A)-binding protein C-terminal (PABC) domain were also present. Molecular and biochemical studies showed that the EhNCABP166 protein is transcribed and translated in trophozoites of E. histolytica. It was also shown that the CH domains are functional and bind to F-actin, whereas the BAR and GBD/FH3 domains interact in vitro and in vivo with different families of GTPases such as Rho and Ras, and with different phosphoinositides. These findings suggest that these domains have the conserved functional properties described in other eukaryotic systems. These domains also interacted with additional GTPase and lipid targets that have not been previously described. Finally, cellular studies showed that EhNCABP166 is localized to the cytoplasm and nucleus of E. histolytica and that it has an important role in phagocytosis, proliferation, and motility of E. histolytica.

The Selenocysteine tRNA Gene in Leishmania major Is Transcribed by both RNA Polymerase II and RNA Polymerase III

ABSTRACT Eukaryotic tRNAs, transcribed by RNA polymerase III (Pol III), contain boxes A and B as internal promoter elements. One exception is the selenocysteine (Sec) tRNA (tRNA-Sec), whose transcription is directed by an internal box B and three extragenic sequences in vertebrates. Here we report on the transcriptional analysis of the tRNA-Sec gene in the protozoan parasite Leishmania major. This organism has unusual mechanisms of gene expression, including Pol II polycistronic transcription and maturation of mRNAs by trans splicing, a process that attaches a 39-nucleotide miniexon to the 5′ end of all the mRNAs. In L. major, tRNA-Sec is encoded by a single gene inserted into a Pol II polycistronic unit, in contrast to most tRNAs, which are clustered at the boundaries of polycistronic units. 5′ rapid amplification of cDNA ends and reverse transcription-PCR experiments showed that some tRNA-Sec transcripts contain the miniexon at the 5′ end and a poly(A) tail at the 3′ end, indicating that the tRNA-Sec gene is polycistronically transcribed by Pol II and processed by trans splicing and polyadenylation, as was recently reported for the tRNA-Sec genes in the related parasite Trypanosoma brucei. However, nuclear run-on assays with RNA polymerase inhibitors and with cells that were previously UV irradiated showed that the tRNA-Sec gene in L. major is also transcribed by Pol III. Thus, our results indicate that RNA polymerase specificity in Leishmania is not absolute in vivo, as has recently been found in other eukaryotes.