Ruhung Wang

Cytotoxicity screening of single-walled carbon nanotubes: detection and removal of cytotoxic contaminants from carboxylated carbon nanotubes.

This study compares the cytotoxicity to cultured mammalian cells of nine different single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) products synthesized by a variety of methods and obtained from a cross section of vendors. A standard procedure involving sonication and centrifugation in buffered bovine serum albumin was developed to disperse all the SWNTs in a biocompatible solution to facilitate comparisons. The effect of the SWNTs on the proliferative ability of a standard cell line was then assessed. Of the nine different SWNT materials tested, only two were significantly toxic, and both were functionalized by carboxylation from different vendors. This was unexpected because carboxylation makes SWNTs more water-soluble, which would presumably correlate with better biocompatibility. However, additional purification work demonstrated that the toxic material in the carboxylated SWNT preparations could be separated from the SWNTs by filtration. The filtrate that contained the toxic activity also contained abundant small carbon fragments that had Raman signatures characteristic of amorphous carbon species, suggesting a correlation between toxicity and oxidized carbon fragments. The removal of a toxic contaminant associated with carboxylated SWNTs is important in the development of carboxylated SWNTs for pharmacological applications.

Generation of toxic degradation products by sonication of Pluronic® dispersants: implications for nanotoxicity testing

Abstract Poloxamers (known by the trade name Pluronic®) are triblock copolymer surfactants that contain two polyethylene glycol blocks and one polypropylene glycol block of various sizes. Poloxamers are widely used as nanoparticle dispersants for nanotoxicity studies wherein nanoparticles are sonicated with a dispersant to prepare suspensions. It is known that poloxamers can be degraded during sonication and that reactive oxygen species contribute to the degradation process. However, the possibility that poloxamer degradation products are toxic to mammalian cells has not been well studied. We report here that aqueous solutions of poloxamer 188 (Pluronic® F-68) and poloxamer 407 (Pluronic® F-127) sonicated in the presence or absence of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) can became highly toxic to cultured cells. Moreover, toxicity correlated with the sonolytic degradation of the polymers. These findings suggest that caution should be used in interpreting the results of nanotoxicity studies where the potential sonolytic degradation of dispersants was not controlled.

Gel electrophoresis method to measure the concentration of single-walled carbon nanotubes extracted from biological tissue

A rapid and sensitive method to detect single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) in biological samples is presented. The method uses polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) followed by quantification of SWNT bands. SWNTs dispersed in bovine serum albumin (BSA) were used to develop the method. When BSA-SWNT dispersions were subjected to sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-PAGE, BSA passed through the stacking gel, entered the resolving gel, and migrated toward the anode as expected. The SWNTs, however, accumulated in a sharp band at the interface between the loading well and the stacking gel. The intensities from digitized images of these bands were proportional to the amount of SWNTs loaded onto the gel with a detection limit of 5 ng of SWNTs. To test the method, normal rat kidney (NRK) cells in culture were allowed to take up SWNTs upon exposure to medium containing various concentrations of BSA-SWNTs for different times and temperatures. The SDS-PAGE analyses of cell lysate samples suggest that BSA-SWNTs enter NRK cells by fluid-phase endocytosis at a rate of 30 fg/day/cell upon exposure to medium containing 98 microg/mL SWNTs.

Toxicity assessment and bioaccumulation in zebrafish embryos exposed to carbon nanotubes suspended in Pluronic® F-108

Abstract Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are often suspended in Pluronic® surfactants by sonication, which may confound toxicity studies because sonication of surfactants can create degradation products that are toxic to mammalian cells. Here, we present a toxicity assessment of Pluronic® F-108 with and without suspended CNTs using embryonic zebrafish as an in vivo model. Pluronic® sonolytic degradation products were toxic to zebrafish embryos just as they were to mammalian cells. When the toxic Pluronic® fragments were removed, there was little effect of pristine multi-walled CNTs (pMWNTs), carboxylated MWNTs (cMWNTs) or pristine single-walled carbon nanotubes (pSWNTs) on embryo viability and development, even at high concentrations. A gel electrophoretic method coupled with Raman imaging was developed to measure the bioaccumulation of CNTs by zebrafish embryos, and dose-dependent uptake of CNTs was observed. These data indicate that embryos accumulate pMWNTs, cMWNTs and pSWNTs yet there is very little embryo toxicity.

Rapid detection of polyethylene glycol sonolysis upon functionalization of carbon nanomaterials

Polyethylene glycol (PEG) and related polymers are often used in the functionalization of carbon nanomaterials in procedures that involve sonication. However, PEG is very sensitive to sonolytic degradation and PEG degradation products can be toxic to mammalian cells. Thus, it is imperative to assess potential PEG degradation to ensure that the final material does not contain undocumented contaminants that can introduce artifacts into experimental results. Described here is a simple and inexpensive polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis method to detect the sonolytic degradation of PEG. The method was used to monitor the integrity of PEG phospholipid constructs and branched chain PEGs after different sonication times. This approach not only helps detect degraded PEG, but should also facilitate rapid screening of sonication parameters to find optimal conditions that minimize PEG damage.

A carbon nanotube-based Raman-imaging immunoassay for evaluating tumor targeting ligands

Herein, we describe a versatile immunoassay that uses biotinylated single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) as a Raman label, avidin-biotin chemistry to link targeting ligands to the label, and confocal Raman microscopy to image whole cells. Using a breast tumor cell model, we demonstrate the usefulness of the method to assess membrane receptor/ligand systems by evaluating a monoclonal antibody, Her-66, known to target the Her2 receptors that are overexpressed on these cells. We present two-dimensional Raman images of the cellular distribution of the SWNT labels corresponding to the distribution of the Her2 receptors in different focal planes through the cell with validation of the method using immunofluorescence microscopy, demonstrating that the Her-66-SWNT complexes were targeted to Her2 cell receptors.

Use of gel electrophoresis and Raman spectroscopy to characterize the effect of the electronic structure of single-walled carbon nanotubes on cellular uptake.

It is well-known that the uptake of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) by living cells depends on factors such as SWNT length and surface chemistry. Surprisingly, little is known about whether the electronic structure of a SWNT influences uptake. One reason for this has been the lack of methods to measure the uptake of SWNTs by cell populations. Previously, we developed a rapid, sensitive, and label-free sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) method for measuring the amount of SWNTs in lysates prepared from cultured cells (Wang et al. Anal. Chem.2009, 81, 294419296592). Herein, we describe the use of SDS-PAGE and microprobe Raman spectroscopy to detect and distinguish the electronic structure of SWNTs internalized by mammalian cells. Using normal rat kidney (NRK) cells and SWNTs dispersed with bovine serum albumin (BSA), we demonstrate that the method can detect both metallic and semiconducting SWNTs in lysates of cells that had internalized BSA-SWNTs and that the uptake of BSA-SWNTs by NRK cells is not influenced by SWNT electronic structure.

The impact of subcellular location on the near infrared-mediated thermal ablation of cells by targeted carbon nanotubes.

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) are used in the near infrared (NIR)-mediated thermal ablation of tumor cells because they efficiently convert absorbed NIR light into heat. Despite the therapeutic potential of SWNTs, there have been no published studies that directly quantify how many SWNTs need be associated with a cell to achieve a desired efficiency of killing, or what is the most efficient subcellular location of SWNTs for killing cells. Herein we measured dose response curves for the efficiency of killing correlated to the measured amounts of folate-targeted SWNTs that were either on the surface or within the vacuolar compartment of normal rat kidney cells. Folate-targeted SWNTs on the cell surface were measured after different concentrations of SWNTs in medium were incubated with cells for 30 min at 4 °C. Folate-targeted SWNTs within the vacuolar compartments were measured after cells were incubated with different concentrations of SWNTs in medium for 6 h at 37 °C. It was observed that a SWNT load of ∼13 pg/cell when internalized was sufficient to kill 90% of the cells under standardized conditions of NIR light irradiation. When ∼3.5 pg/cell of SWNTs were internalized within the endosomal/lysosomal compartments, ∼50% of the cells were killed, but when ∼3.5 pg/cell of SWNTs were confined to the cell surface only ∼5% of the cells were killed under the same NIR irradiation conditions. The SWNT subcellular locations were verified using Raman imaging of SWNTs merged with fluorescence images of known subcellular markers. To our knowledge, this is the first time that SWNT amounts at known subcellular locations have been correlated with a dose-normalized efficacy of thermal ablation and the results support the idea that SWNTs confined to the plasma membrane are not as effective in NIR-mediated cell killing as an equivalent amount of SWNTs when internalized within the endosomal/lysosomal vesicles.

Abstract 5374: Effect of carbon nanotube amount and subcellular location on the near infrared (NIR) photothermal ablation of cells

Proceedings: AACR Annual Meeting 2014; April 5-9, 2014; San Diego, CA Background and Objective: Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) are readily taken up by cells, strongly absorb in the NIR (700-1100 nm) region, and efficiently convert absorbed NIR into heat. These properties have made SWNTs an interesting facilitator for the NIR mediated thermal ablation of cancer cells. In the application of SWNTs to thermal ablation, it is not known what amount of cell-associated SWNTs is required to achieve a defined level of cell killing upon NIR irradiation. In addition, it has not been quantitatively demonstrated whether SWNTs bound to the plasma membrane or internalized into vesicles are more efficient in killing cells. The overall objective of this project is to assess NIR mediated killing as a function of cell-associated SWNT amount and SWNT subcellular location. Methods: The study was performed in three phases. The first phase involved non-covalent functionalization of SWNTs by bovine serum albumin. Non-targeted uptake and NIR irradiation of cells was performed to find the optimal laser power density, NIR exposure time and SWNT concentration to kill cells. SWNTs associated with cells were then extracted and quantified by a sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis technique (Wang et al., 2009, Anal. Chem. 81:2944-2952) and the SWNT amount was correlated with cell killing. The second phase included the non-covalent functionalization of SWNTs with phospholipid-PEG conjugated folic acid (PL-PEG-FA) as a targeting ligand. The SWNTs were internalized by receptor-mediated endocytosis at 37°C, the optimum laser conditions were determined as in the first phase, and the amount of internalized SWNTs were quantified and correlated with NIR-mediated cell killing. In the third phase, cells were incubated with the PL-PEG-FA SWNTs at 4°C to allow binding to the cell surface without internalization, followed by measuring the amount of surface-bound SWNTs. The amount of surface-bound SWNTs was then correlated with NIR-mediated cell death. Results: An increase in killing of cells incubated with SWNTs was observed in both the non-targeted and targeted systems as a function of NIR laser power density, NIR exposure time and incubated SWNT concentration. With the folate targeted system, there was more cell death when SWNTs were internalized into vesicles compared to when an equivalent amount of SWNTs were confined to the cell surface. Conclusion: SWNTs internalized by cells, either by fluid phase endocytosis, or by receptor-mediated endocytosis via the folate receptor, were effective in killing cells upon NIR irradiation. However, SWNTs confined to the cell surface after binding to folate receptors at low temperature were not as efficient in killing cells upon NIR irradiation. This suggests that NIR-mediated thermal ablation therapy will be more effective when SWNTs are targeted to a receptor and are internalized by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Citation Format: Vasanth Siruvallur Murali, Carole Mikoryak, Ruhung Wang, Rockford K. Draper. Effect of carbon nanotube amount and subcellular location on the near infrared (NIR) photothermal ablation of cells. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 105th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2014 Apr 5-9; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2014;74(19 Suppl):Abstract nr 5374. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2014-5374

Quantitation of cell-associated carbon nanotubes: selective binding and accumulation of carboxylated carbon nanotubes by macrophages

Abstract To understand the influence of carboxylation on the interaction of carbon nanotubes with cells, the amount of pristine multi-walled carbon nanotubes (P-MWNTs) or carboxylated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (C-MWNTs) coated with Pluronic® F-108 that were accumulated by macrophages was measured by quantifying CNTs extracted from cells. Mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages and differentiated human THP-1 (dTHP-1) macrophages accumulated 80–100 times more C-MWNTs than P-MWNTs during a 24-h exposure at 37 °C. The accumulation of C-MWNTs by RAW 264.7 cells was not lethal; however, phagocytosis was impaired as subsequent uptake of polystyrene beads was reduced after a 20-h exposure to C-MWNTs. The selective accumulation of C-MWNTs suggested that there might be receptors on macrophages that bind C-MWNTs. The binding of C-MWNTs to macrophages was measured as a function of concentration at 4 °C in the absence of serum to minimize the potential interference by serum proteins or temperature-dependent uptake processes. The result was that the cells bound 8.7 times more C-MWNTs than P-MWNTs, consistent with the selective accumulation of C-MWNTs at 37 °C. In addition, serum strongly antagonized the binding of C-MWTS to macrophages, suggesting that serum contained inhibitors of binding. Moreover, inhibitors of class A scavenger receptor (SR-As) reduced the binding of C-MWNTs by about 50%, suggesting that SR-As contribute to the binding and endocytosis of C-MWNTs in macrophages but that other receptors may also be involved. Altogether, the evidence supports the hypothesis that macrophages contain binding sites selective for C-MWNTs that facilitate the high accumulation of C-MWNTs compared to P-MWNTs.