Ruth Houlihan

Modelling squeeze film effects in a MEMS accelerometer with a levitated proof mass

A triaxial accelerometer is presented which employs as its proof mass a mechanically free micromachined disc that is electrostatically levitated. Air damping plays a critical role in the operation of the accelerometer, providing stability to an inherently unstable system. Systems that operate beyond the cut-off frequency, however, suffer reduced gain due to the spring component of the squeeze film damping, resulting in decreased sensitivity. A finite-element model for extracting squeeze film damping coefficients for transverse and rotational motion of the disc, via an analogy to heat transfer theory, is presented. The use of the analogy enables a reduction of the problem from a complex three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics domain to a two-dimensional heat transfer domain. The model is used to evaluate the effect of including damping holes in the proof mass. The high-frequency oscillation and physical size of the proof mass dictate that the accelerometer is operated well beyond its cut-off frequency and so the inclusion of damping holes in the proof mass can result in an increase rather than decrease in the damping coefficient. The resulting system-level model, implemented in Matlab/Simulink, is then used to evaluate the effect of the squeeze film damping on the device performance.

Modelling of an accelerometer based on a levitated proof mass

A system level model of a force balance accelerometer in which the proof mass is levitated with electrostatic forces is presented. The position of the proof mass is detected capacitively and controlled electrostatically. The mathematical modelling of the system is described. In particular, equations for the capacitances and electrostatic forces are derived and verified by comparison with a finite element model. They are then implemented in a Simulink system level model of the accelerometer.

A simple electrical test method to isolate viscoelasticity and creep in capacitive microelectromechanical switches

A bipolar hold-down voltage was used to study mechanical degradation in radio-frequency microelectromechanical capacitive shunt switches. The bipolar signal was used to prevent the occurrence of dielectric charging and to isolate mechanical effects. The characteristics of material stress relaxation and recovery were monitored by recording the change of the pull-in voltage of a device. The creep effect in movable components was saturated by repeated actuation to the pulled-in position, while comparison with a theoretical model confirmed the presence of linear viscoelasticity in the devices.

Reliability assessment of MEMS switches for space applications: laboratory and launch testing

A novel combination of ground-based and flight tests was employed to examine the reliability of capacitive radio-frequency microelectromechanical switches for use in space applications. Laboratory tests were initially conducted to examine the thermomechanical effects of packaging and space-like thermal stresses on the pull-in voltage of the devices; during this process it was observed that operational stability is highly dependent on the geometrical design of the switch and this must be taken in to account during the design stage. To further expose the switches to acceleration levels experienced during a space mission, they were launched on board a sounding rocket and then subjected to free-fall from a height of over 1.3 km with a resulting impact of over 3500g. Post launch analysis indicates that the switches are remarkably resilient to high levels of acceleration. Some evidence is also present to indicate that time-dependent strain relaxation in die attach epoxy materials may contribute to minor variations in device shape and performance.

Experimental isolation of degradation mechanisms in capacitive microelectromechanical switches

DC and bipolar voltage stresses are used to isolate mechanical degradation of the movable electrode from charging mechanism in microelectromechanical capacitive switches. Switches with different metals as the movable electrode were investigated. In titanium switches, a shift in the pull-in voltages is observed after dc stressing whereas no shift occurs after the bipolar stressing, which is to be expected from charging theory. On switches with similar dielectric but made of aluminium, the narrowing effect occurs regardless if dc or bipolar stressing is used, which indicates the mechanical degradation as the mechanism responsible.

A low frequency MEMS energy harvester scavenging energy from magnetic field surrounding an AC current-carrying wire

This paper reports on a low frequency piezoelectric energy harvester that scavenges energy from a wire carrying an AC current. The harvester is described, fabricated and characterized. The device consists of a silicon cantilever with integrated piezoelectric capacitor and proof-mass that incorporates a permanent magnet. When brought close to an AC current carrying wire, the magnet couples to the AC magnetic field from a wire, causing the cantilever to vibrate and generate power. The measured average power dissipated across an optimal resistive load was 1.5 μW. This was obtained by exciting the device into mechanical resonance using the electro-magnetic field from the 2 A source current. The measurements also reveal that the device has a nonlinear response that is due to a spring hardening mechanism.

Optimisation, design and fabrication of a novel accelerometer

This paper presents the design and fabrication of an accelerometer which, as its proof mass, employs a mechanically unsupported disk. The disk is levitated electrostatically and sensing is achieved capacitively. The accelerometer is force balanced by incorporating the mechanical sensing element in a Sigma Delta (/spl Sigma//spl Delta/) modulator control system. Various electrode configurations are presented and optimised to ensure maximum pick-off signal. System level modelling results, comparing three and four electrode-group configurations, are presented and the fabrication process is discussed.

Analysis and design of a capacitive accelerometer based on an electrostatically levitated microdisk

A system-level model of an electrostatically actuated accelerometer is presented. The accelerometer comprises a proof mass levitated between an arrangement of upper and lower pie-shaped electrodes. The proof mass is an electroplated nickel disk, 1 mm in diameter and 200 micrometers thick. The position and orientation of the disk is detected by measuring the differential capacitance between the disk and each of the four upper and corresponding lower electrodes.

Design, modelling and preliminary characterisation of microneedle-based electrodes for tissue electroporation in vivo

We analysed the use of microneedle-based electrodes to enhance electroporation of mouse testis with DNA vectors for production of transgenic mice. Different microneedle formats were developed and tested, and we ultimately used electrodes based on arrays of 500 μm tall microneedles. In a series of experiments involving injection of a DNA vector expressing Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) and electroporation using microneedle electrodes and a commercially available voltage supply, we compared the performance of flat and microneedle electrodes by measuring GFP expression at various timepoints after electroporation. Our main finding, supported by both experimental and simulated data, is that needles significantly enhanced electroporation of testis.

Identification of the transient stress-induced leakage current in silicon dioxide films for use in microelectromechanical systems capacitive switches

Dielectric charging at low electric fields is characterized on radio-frequency microelectromechanical systems (RF MEMS) capacitive switches. The dielectric under investigation is silicon dioxide deposited by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. The switch membrane is fabricated using a metal alloy which is shown to be mechanically robust. In the absence of mechanical degradation, these capacitive switches are appropriate test structures for the study of dielectric charging in MEMS devices. Monitoring the shift and recovery of device capacitance-voltage characteristics revealed the presence of a charging mechanism which takes place across the bottom metal-dielectric interface. Current measurements on metal-insulator-metal devices confirmed the presence of interfacial charging and discharging transient currents. The field- and temperature-dependence of these currents is the same as the well-known transient stress-induced leakage current (SILC) observed in flash memory devices. A simple model was creat...