S.A.H. Gerhards

Clinical effectiveness of online computerised cognitive-behavioural therapy without support for depression in primary care: randomised trial

BACKGROUND Computerised cognitive-behavioural therapy (CCBT) might offer a solution to the current undertreatment of depression. AIMS To determine the clinical effectiveness of online, unsupported CCBT for depression in primary care. METHOD Three hundred and three people with depression were randomly allocated to one of three groups: Colour Your Life; treatment as usual (TAU) by a general practitioner; or Colour Your Life and TAU combined. Colour Your Life is an online, multimedia, interactive CCBT programme. No assistance was offered. We had a 6-month follow-up period. RESULTS No significant differences in outcome between the three interventions were found in the intention-to-treat and per protocol analyses. CONCLUSIONS Online, unsupported CCBT did not outperform usual care, and the combination of both did not have additional effects. Decrease in depressive symptoms in people with moderate to severe depression was moderate in all three interventions. Online CCBT without support is not beneficial for all individuals with depression.

Economic evaluation of online computerised cognitive–behavioural therapy without support for depression in primary care: randomised trial

BACKGROUND Evidence about the cost-effectiveness and cost utility of computerised cognitive-behavioural therapy (CCBT) is still limited. Recently, we compared the clinical effectiveness of unsupported, online CCBT with treatment as usual (TAU) and a combination of CCBT and TAU (CCBT plus TAU) for depression. The study is registered at the Netherlands Trial Register, part of the Dutch Cochrane Centre (ISRCTN47481236). AIMS To assess the cost-effectiveness of CCBT compared with TAU and CCBT plus TAU. METHOD Costs, depression severity and quality of life were measured for 12 months. Cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analyses were performed from a societal perspective. Uncertainty was dealt with by bootstrap replications and sensitivity analyses. RESULTS Costs were lowest for the CCBT group. There are no significant group differences in effectiveness or quality of life. Cost-utility and cost-effectiveness analyses tend to be in favour of CCBT. CONCLUSIONS On balance, CCBT constitutes the most efficient treatment strategy, although all treatments showed low adherence rates and modest improvements in depression and quality of life.

Improving adherence and effectiveness of computerised cognitive behavioural therapy without support for depression: A qualitative study on patient experiences

BACKGROUND Several studies have evaluated the efficacy and effectiveness of computerized cognitive behavioural therapy (CCBT) for depression, but research on the patient perspective is limited. AIMS To gain knowledge on patient experiences with the online self-help CCBT program Colour Your Life (CYL) for depression, and find explanations for the low treatment adherence and effectiveness. METHOD Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 18 patients. Interviewees were selected from a CCBT trial. An inductive, content analysis of the interviews was performed. RESULTS The main theme throughout the interviews concerns barriers and motivators experienced with CCBT. The most important barriers included experiences of a lack of identification with and applicability of CCBT-CYL, lack of support to adhere with the program or to gain deeper understanding, and inadequate computer/Internet skills, equipment, or location. Confusion between CCBT and Internet questionnaires resulted in no CCBT uptake of some study participants. Motivators included experiencing self-identification and improvement through CCBT-CYL, participating in a scientific study, and the freedom and anonymity associated with online computer self-help. The addition of support to CCBT was suggested as an improvement towards adherence and the course content. CONCLUSION The CCBT program CYL in its current form does not work for a large group of people with depressive symptoms. More tailoring, the provision of support (professional or lay) and good computer conditions could improve CCBT.

Use and acceptability of unsupported online computerized cognitive behavioral therapy for depression and associations with clinical outcome

BACKGROUND In a recent randomized trial, we were unable to confirm the previously reported high effectiveness of CCBT. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to have a closer look at usage and acceptability (i.e. expectancy, credibility, and satisfaction) of the intervention. METHODS Depressed participants (N=200) were given login codes for unsupported online CCBT. A track-and-trace system tracked which components were used. We used a 9-month follow-up period. RESULTS Uptake was sufficient, but dropout was high. Many usage indices were positively associated with short-term depressive improvement, whereas only homework was related to long-term improvement. Acceptability was good and expectancy could predict long-term, but not short-term outcome. LIMITATIONS Associations between use of CCBT and improvement are merely correlational. Our sample was too depressed in relation to the scope of the intervention. We relied on online self-report measures. Analyses were exploratory in nature. CONCLUSIONS Although CCBT might be a feasible and acceptable treatment for depression, means to improve treatment adherence are needed for moderately to severely depressed individuals.

Clinical and cost-effectiveness of computerised cognitive behavioural therapy for depression in primary care: Design of a randomised trial

BackgroundMajor depression is a common mental health problem in the general population, associated with a substantial impact on quality of life and societal costs. However, many depressed patients in primary care do not receive the care they need. Reason for this is that pharmacotherapy is only effective in severely depressed patients and psychological treatments in primary care are scarce and costly. A more feasible treatment in primary care might be computerised cognitive behavioural therapy. This can be a self-help computer program based on the principles of cognitive behavioural therapy. Although previous studies suggest that computerised cognitive behavioural therapy is effective, more research is necessary. Therefore, the objective of the current study is to evaluate the (cost-) effectiveness of online computerised cognitive behavioural therapy for depression in primary care.Methods/DesignIn a randomised trial we will compare (a) computerised cognitive behavioural therapy with (b) treatment as usual by a GP, and (c) computerised cognitive behavioural therapy in combination with usual GP care. Three hundred mild to moderately depressed patients (aged 18–65) will be recruited in the general population by means of a large-scale Internet-based screening (N = 200,000). Patients will be randomly allocated to one of the three treatment groups. Primary outcome measure of the clinical evaluation is the severity of depression. Other outcomes include psychological distress, social functioning, and dysfunctional beliefs. The economic evaluation will be performed from a societal perspective, in which all costs will be related to clinical effectiveness and health-related quality of life. All outcome assessments will take place on the Internet at baseline, two, three, six, nine, and twelve months. Costs are measured on a monthly basis. A time horizon of one year will be used without long-term extrapolation of either costs or quality of life.DiscussionAlthough computerised cognitive behavioural therapy is a promising treatment for depression in primary care, more research is needed. The effectiveness of online computerised cognitive behavioural therapy without support remains to be evaluated as well as the effects of computerised cognitive behavioural therapy in combination with usual GP care. Economic evaluation is also needed. Methodological strengths and weaknesses are discussed.Trial registrationThe study has been registered at the Netherlands Trial Register, part of the Dutch Cochrane Centre (ISRCTN47481236).

One-year follow-up results of unsupported online computerized cognitive behavioural therapy for depression in primary care: A randomized trial

OBJECTIVE To report the one-year follow-up results of computerized cognitive behavioural therapy (CCBT), offered online without professional support, for depression compared with usual GP care and a combination of both treatments. To explore potential relapse prevention effects of CCBT. METHODS 303 depressed patients were randomly allocated to (a) unsupported online CCBT (b) treatment as usual (TAU), or (c) CCBT and TAU combined. We had a 12-month follow-up period. Primary outcome measure was the Beck Depression Inventory II. Self-reported health care use was also measured. KEY FINDINGS At 12 months, no statistically significant differences between the three interventions are found in the intention-to-treat population for depressive severity, reliable improvement, remission, and relapse. In the first quarter, differences in health care consumption between the three interventions are significant (i.e. less GP contacts, less antidepressant medication, and less specialist mental health care in the CCBT group), but these differences disappear over time. CONCLUSIONS Unsupported online CCBT is not superior to TAU by a GP for depression. With equal effects, CCBT alone leads to less health care consumption than TAU and CCBT&TAU. Overall effects are modest in all interventions, which can be explained by the finding that the use of health care services decreases despite the lack of substantial improvements.

The responsiveness of quality of life utilities to change in depression: A comparison of instruments (SF-6D, EQ-5D, and DFD)

BACKGROUND Utilities are often a main outcome parameter in economic evaluations. Because depression has a large influence on quality of life, it is expected that utilities are responsive to changes in depression. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the change in utility derived from different instruments in depression, including the Short Form 6D (SF-6D), the Euroqol based on the UK (EQ-5D(UK)), the Euroqol based on the Dutch tariff (EQ-5D(NL)), and utilities derived from Beck Depression Inventory Second Edition (BDI-II) using the Depression-Free-Day method. METHOD This study evaluated the responsiveness, the minimally important difference, and the agreement in utility change derived from the different instruments. RESULTS The SF-6D, EQ-5D(UK), and EQ-5D(NL) were responsive. The minimally important difference values are in line with previous studies, about 0.3. The Depression-Free-Day method nearly always resulted in positive utility changes, even for subgroups that had no change or deterioration in health status or depression. There was poor agreement between utility changes of the SF-6D, EQ-5D (either EQ-5D(UK) or EQ-5D(NL)), and DFDu. CONCLUSIONS The SF-6D, EQ-5D(UK), and EQ-5D(NL) seem responsive and thus adequate for estimating utility in depression treatment. We do not recommend the use of the Depression-Fee-Day method. The low agreement between utility changes indicates that outcomes of the different instruments are incomparable.

Cost-effectiveness of postural exercise therapy versus physiotherapy in computer screen workers with early non-specific work-related upper limb disorders (WRULD); a randomized controlled trial

BackgroundExercise therapies generate substantial costs in computer workers with non-specific work-related upper limb disorders (WRULD).AimsTo study if postural exercise therapy is cost-effective compared to regular physiotherapy in screen-workers with early complaints, both from health care and societal perspective.MethodsProspective randomized trial including cost-effectiveness analysis; one year follow-up. Participants: Eighty-eight screen-workers with early non-specific WRULD; six drop-outs. Interventions: A ten week postural exercise program versus regular physiotherapy. Outcome measures: Effectiveness measures: Pain: visual analogous scale (VAS), self-perceived WRULD (yes/no). Functional outcome: Disabilities of Arm, Shoulder and Hand- Dutch Language Version (DASH-DLV). Quality of life outcome: EQ-5D.Economic measures: health care costs including patient and family costs and productivity costs resulting in societal costs. Cost-effectiveness measures: health care costs and societal costs related to the effectiveness measures. Outcome measures were assessed at baseline; three, six and twelve months after baseline.ResultsAt baseline both groups were comparable for baseline characteristics except scores on the Pain Catastrophizing Scale and comparable for costs. No significant differences between the groups concerning effectiveness at one year follow-up were found. Effectiveness scores slightly improved over time. After one year 55% of participants were free of complaints. After one year the postural exercise group had higher mean total health care costs, but lower productivity costs compared to the physiotherapy group. Mean societal costs after one year (therefore) were in favor of postural exercise therapy [- €622; 95% CI -2087; +590)]. After one year, only self- perceived WRULD seemed to result in acceptable cost-effectiveness of the postural exercise strategy over physiotherapy; however the probability of acceptable cost-effectiveness did not exceed 60%.Considering societal costs related to QALYs, postural exercise therapy had a probability of over 80% to be cost-effective over a wide range of cost-effectiveness ceiling ratios; however based on a marginal QALY-difference of 0.1 over a 12 month time frame.ConclusionAlthough our trial failed to find significant differences in VAS, QALYs and ICERs based on VAS and QALYs at one-year follow-up, CEACs suggest that postural exercise therapy according to Mensendieck/Cesar has a higher probability of being cost-effective compared to regular physiotherapy; however further research is required.Trial registrationISRCTN 15872455

De computer als hulpverlener bij depressie en angst

SamenvattingPatiënten met depressie en angst krijgen in de eerste lijn niet altijd de zorg die zij nodig hebben. Gecomputeriseerde cognitieve gedragstherapie (CGT) kan een antwoord zijn op de onderbehandeling van deze groep. In dit artikel geven we achtereenvolgens een overzicht van de verschillende toepassingsmogelijkheden van gecomputeriseerde CGT, een beschrijving van studies naar de effectiviteit van deze behandelingen en suggesties voor implementatie in de huisartspraktijk.