Sabina Hillebrandt

Radiation induced chromatin conformation changes analysed by fluorescent localization microscopy, statistical physics, and graph theory.

It has been well established that the architecture of chromatin in cell nuclei is not random but functionally correlated. Chromatin damage caused by ionizing radiation raises complex repair machineries. This is accompanied by local chromatin rearrangements and structural changes which may for instance improve the accessibility of damaged sites for repair protein complexes. Using stably transfected HeLa cells expressing either green fluorescent protein (GFP) labelled histone H2B or yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) labelled histone H2A, we investigated the positioning of individual histone proteins in cell nuclei by means of high resolution localization microscopy (Spectral Position Determination Microscopy = SPDM). The cells were exposed to ionizing radiation of different doses and aliquots were fixed after different repair times for SPDM imaging. In addition to the repair dependent histone protein pattern, the positioning of antibodies specific for heterochromatin and euchromatin was separately recorded by SPDM. The present paper aims to provide a quantitative description of structural changes of chromatin after irradiation and during repair. It introduces a novel approach to analyse SPDM images by means of statistical physics and graph theory. The method is based on the calculation of the radial distribution functions as well as edge length distributions for graphs defined by a triangulation of the marker positions. The obtained results show that through the cell nucleus the different chromatin re-arrangements as detected by the fluorescent nucleosomal pattern average themselves. In contrast heterochromatic regions alone indicate a relaxation after radiation exposure and re-condensation during repair whereas euchromatin seemed to be unaffected or behave contrarily. SPDM in combination with the analysis techniques applied allows the systematic elucidation of chromatin re-arrangements after irradiation and during repair, if selected sub-regions of nuclei are investigated.

Processing Follows Function: Pushing the Formation of Self- Assembled Monolayers to High-Throughput Compatible Time Scales

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of organic molecules can be used to tune interface energetics and thereby improve charge carrier injection at metal-semiconductor contacts. We investigate the compatibility of SAM formation with high-throughput processing techniques. Therefore, we examine the quality of SAMs, in terms of work function shift and chemical composition as measured with photoelectron and infrared spectroscopy and in dependency on molecular exposure during SAM formation. The functionality of the SAMs is determined by the performance increase of organic field-effect transistors upon SAM treatment of the source/drain contacts. This combined analytical and device-based approach enables us to minimize the necessary formation times via an optimization of the deposition conditions. Our findings demonstrate that SAMs composed of partially fluorinated alkanethiols can be prepared in ambient atmosphere from ethanol solution using immersion times as short as 5 s and still exhibit almost full charge injection functionality if process parameters are chosen carefully. This renders solution-processed SAMs compatible with high-throughput solution-based deposition techniques.

Naphthalene Tetracarboxydiimide-Based n-Type Polymers with Removable Solubility via Thermally Cleavable Side Chains

Multilayer solution-processed devices in organic electronics show the tendency of intermixing of subsequently deposited layers. Here, we synthesize naphthalene tetracarboxydiimide (NDI)-based n-type semiconducting polymers with thermally cleavable side chains which upon removal render the polymer insoluble. Infrared and photoelectron spectroscopy were performed to investigate the pyrolysis process. Characterization of organic field-effect transistors provides insight into charge transport. After the pyrolysis homogeneous films could be produced which are insoluble in the primary solvent. By varying curing temperature and time we show that these process parameters govern the amount of side chains in the film and influence the device performance.

Functionalized Nickel Oxide Hole Contact Layers: Work Function versus Conductivity

Nickel oxide (NiO) is a widely used material for efficient hole extraction in optoelectronic devices. However, its surface characteristics strongly depend on the processing history and exposure to adsorbates. To achieve controllability of the electronic and chemical properties of solution-processed nickel oxide (sNiO), we functionalize its surface with a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of 4-cyanophenylphosphonic acid. A detailed analysis of infrared and photoelectron spectroscopy shows the chemisorption of the molecules with a nominal layer thickness of around one monolayer and gives an insight into the chemical composition of the SAM. Density functional theory calculations reveal the possible binding configurations. By the application of the SAM, we increase the sNiO work function by up to 0.8 eV. When incorporated in organic solar cells, the increase in work function and improved energy level alignment to the donor does not lead to a higher fill factor of these cells. Instead, we observe the formation of a transport barrier, which can be reduced by increasing the conductivity of the sNiO through doping with copper oxide. We conclude that the widespread assumption of maximizing the fill factor by only matching the work function of the oxide charge extraction layer with the energy levels in the active material is a too narrow approach. Successful implementation of interface modifiers is only possible with a sufficiently high charge carrier concentration in the oxide interlayer to support efficient charge transfer across the interface.

Raman spectroscopy and microscopy of electrochemically and chemically doped high-mobility semiconducting polymers

The polaronic nature of two high-mobility hole-conducting polymers (PBTTT and DPPT-TT) is investigated by Raman spectroscopy and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Chemical and electrochemical hole doping of these polymers leads to characteristic changes in the intensity ratios of the Raman active CC stretching modes but no significant frequency shifts. The data indicate a localization of positive polarons on the electron-rich thienothiophene cores that are present in both polymers. DFT calculations show that the Raman intensity ratio variations are most likely caused by the local electric field that originates from negatively charged dopant molecules or electrolyte anions and the positive polaron on the polymer chain. The characteristic changes in the Raman mode intensity ratios with the degree of doping enable in situ mapping of charge carrier concentration in the channel of electrolyte-gated polymer transistors with high spatial resolution.

Structure–Property Relationship of Phenylene-Based Self-Assembled Monolayers for Record Low Work Function of Indium Tin Oxide

Studying the structure-property relations of tailored dipolar phenyl and biphenylphosphonic acids, we report self-assembled monolayers with a significant decrease in the work function (WF) of indium-tin oxide (ITO) electrodes. Whereas the strengths of the dipoles are varied through the different molecular lengths and the introduction of electron-withdrawing fluorine atoms, the surface energy is kept constant through the electron-donating N, N-dimethylamine head groups. The self-assembled monolayer formation and its modification of the electrodes are investigated via infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy, contact angle measurements, and photoelectron spectroscopy. The WF decrease in ITO correlates with increasing molecular dipoles. The lowest ever recorded WF of 3.7 eV is achieved with the fluorinated biphenylphosphonic acid.

IR spectroscopic investigation of charge transfer at interfaces of organic semiconductors(Conference Presentation)

In organic electronics, the interactions at interfaces between different organic and inorganic layers play a decisive role for device functionality and performance. Therefore, more detailed, quantitative studies of charge transfer (CT) at such interfaces are needed to improve the understanding of the underlying mechanisms. In this study we show that in-situ infrared spectroscopy can be used to investigate CT effects at organic/organic as well as inorganic/organic interfaces quantitatively. For different combinations of commonly used organic semiconductors such as 4,4´-bis(N-carbazolyl)-1,1´-biphenyl (CBP) or fluorinated zinc phthalocyanine (F4ZnPc) and inorganic contact materials such as molybdenum oxide (MoO3) or indium tin oxide (ITO) the CT at the interface was investigated using in-situ IR spectroscopy. The measurements were carried out under UHV conditions during film growth what enables a careful study of the influence of different parameters such as substrate temperature and layer thickness in a controlled way even on a nanometer scale. When the organic molecules are deposited onto the underlying layer charged and non-charged species form which can be identified and quantitatively analyzed in the IR spectra. It was also found that the deposition sequence can strongly influence the interface properties what might have strong implications on the layer stack design. For example, when MoO3 is deposited onto CBP, the CBP layer is strongly doped, due to diffusion of the deposited transition metal oxide clusters into the organic layer. Financial support by BMBF (project INTERPHASE) is gratefully acknowledged.

Improving performance, stability, and processability of OFETs with printed Ag electrodes by means of a novel, multipurpose self-assembled monolayer(Conference Presentation)

We present a novel SAM-forming molecule bisjulolidyldisulfide that reduces the WF of metal surfaces by ~1.2 eV and can lower the barrier for electron injection to organic semiconductors. Applied to Au and Ag surfaces, including inkjet-printed Ag on PET, we characterized bisjulolidyldisulfide monolayers by means of photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) and sessile drop technique, as well as their influence on the performance of n-type OFETs. Next a strong reduction of the contact resistance by two orders of magnitude, we found that this SAM treatment extends the shelf lifetime of ambient-stored OFET devices. Also, it improves the wettability and thereby facilitates solution processing of a subsequent layer with respect to the untreated surface. The full electrical functionality of bisjulolidyldisulfide SAMs was found to become manifest with only one minute of immersion in ethanol solution. PES measurements suggests that the surface coverage is thorough on Au, but only fractional on Ag, especially on printed Ag. However, the quality of SAM-treated bottom contacts in n-type OFETs is very similar for all three investigated metal surfaces (Au and Ag evaporated and printed Ag). This is especially important for printed Ag-electrodes, as their surface was found to be significantly worse for device performance in comparison to their evaporated Ag counterpart. Using this surface treatment we realized integrated unipolar n-type ring oscillators with inkjet printed Ag electrodes.

Investigation of self-assembled monolayer formation using infrared-reflection-absorption-spectroscopy

Charge injection barriers caused by a misalignment of energy levels are of major concern in organic semiconductor devices. One possibility to improve charge carrier injection is the application of an additional layer at the interface between the contact and the organic semiconductor. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) have been proven to form stable and well defined layers on various contact materials. Depending on their molecular dipole they can lower or raise the work function of a material and are therefore very well suited as injection layers. Since SAMs can be processed from solution they form a relevant material for printed organic electronics. The orientation of the SAM and thus important interface properties like the interface dipole and the work-function shift are influenced by various parameters such as concentration of the molecule in solution, immersion time and cleanliness of the solution and of the substrate. Infrared-reflection-absorption-spectroscopy (IRRAS) is a very sensitive tool to measure changes in the orientation of SAMs on metal substrates. We performed IRRAS measurements on SAMs consisting of perfluorinated decanethiol (PFDT) on evaporated gold films in order to probe the orientation, ordering and quality of the SAMs. By systematic variation of immersion time and concentration, we were able to conclude on the process steps of layer formation. Taking into account realistic printing circumstances, we also investigated the impact of oxygen in the solvent and the gold substrate on the layer formation process.