Salma Farahi

Focusing and scanning light through a multimode optical fiber using digital phase conjugation

We demonstrate for the first time to our knowledge a digital phase conjugation technique for generating a sharp focus point at the end of a multimode optical fiber. A sharp focus with a contrast of 1800 is experimentally obtained at the tip of a 105 μm core multimode fiber. Scanning of the focal point is also demonstrated by digital means. Effects from illumination and fiber bending are addressed.

High-resolution, lensless endoscope based on digital scanning through a multimode optical fiber

We propose and experimentally demonstrate an ultra-thin rigid endoscope (450 μm diameter) based on a passive multimode optical fiber. We use digital phase conjugation to overcome the modal scrambling of the fiber to tightly focus and scan the laser light at its distal end. By exploiting the maximum number of modes available, sub-micron resolution, high quality fluorescence images of neuronal cells were acquired. The imaging system is evaluated in terms of fluorescence collection efficiency, resolution and field of view. The small diameter of the proposed endoscope, along with its high quality images offer an opportunity for minimally invasive medical endoscopic imaging and diagnosis based on cellular phenotype via direct tissue penetration.

Dynamic bending compensation while focusing through a multimode fiber

Multimode fiber endoscopes have recently been shown to provide sub-micrometer resolution, however, imaging through a multimode fiber is highly sensitive to bending. Here we describe the implementation of a coherent beacon source placed at the distal tip of the multimode fiber, which can be used to compensate for the effects of bending. In the first part of this paper, we show that a diffraction limited focused spot can be generated at the distal tip of the multimode fiber using the beacon. In the second part, we demonstrate focusing even when the fiber is bent by dynamically compensating for it. The speckle pattern at the proximal fiber end, generated by the beacon source placed at its distal end, is highly dependent on the fiber conformation. We experimentally show that by intensity correlation, it is possible to identify the fiber conformation and maintain a focus spot while the fiber is bent over a certain range. Once the fiber configuration is determined, previously calibrated phase patterns could be stored for each fiber conformation and used to scan the distal spot and perform imaging.

Delivery of focused short pulses through a multimode fiber.

Light propagation through multimode fibers suffers from spatial distortions that lead to a scrambled intensity profile. In previous work, the correction of such distortions using various wavefront control methods has been demonstrated in the continuous wave case. However, in the ultra-fast pulse regime, modal dispersion temporally broadens a pulse after propagation. Here, we present a method that compensates for spatial distortions and mitigates temporal broadening due to modal dispersion by a selective phase conjugation process in which only modes of similar group velocities are excited. The selectively excited modes are forced to follow certain paths through the multimode fiber and interfere constructively at the distal tip to form a focused spot with minimal temporal broadening. We demonstrate the delivery of focused 500 fs pulses through a 30 cm long step-index multimode fiber. The achieved pulse duration corresponds to approximately 1/30th of the duration obtained if modal dispersion was not controlled. Moreover, we measured a detailed two-dimensional map of the pulse duration at the output of the fiber and confirmed that the focused spot produces a two-photon absorption effect. This work opens new possibilities for ultra-thin multiphoton imaging through multimode fibers.

Digital confocal microscopy through a multimode fiber.

Confocal laser-scanning microscopy is a well-known optical imaging method where a pinhole is used in the illumination and detection pathways of a normal microscope, in order to selectively excite and detect a particular focal volume. The advantage of this method is a significant increase in contrast, due to the rejection of background contributions to the signal. Here, we propose to apply this method in the context of multimode fiber endoscopy. Due to modal scrambling, it is not possible to use a physical pinhole to filter light signals that have travel through multimode fibers. Instead, we use a transmission matrix approach to characterize the propagation of light through the fiber, and we apply the filtering operation in the digital domain.

Increasing the imaging capabilities of multimode fibers by exploiting the properties of highly scattering media

We present a design that exploits the focusing properties of scattering media to increase the resolution and the working distance of multimode fiber (MMF)-based imaging devices. Placing a highly scattering medium in front of the distal tip of the MMF enables the formation of smaller sized foci at increased working distances away from the fiber tip. We perform a parametric study of the effect of the working distance and the separation between the fiber and the scattering medium on the focus size. We experimentally demonstrate submicrometer focused spots as far away as 800 μm with 532 nm light.

Optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy by use of a multimode fiber

We demonstrate Optical-Resolution Photoacoustic Microscopy (OR-PAM), where the optical field is focused and scanned using Digital Phase Conjugation through a multimode fiber. The focus is scanned across the field of view using digital means, and the acoustic signal induced is collected by a transducer. Optical-resolution photoacoustic images of a knot made by two absorptive wires are obtained and we report on resolution smaller than 1.5 μm across a 201 μm × 201 μm field of view. The use of a multimode optical fiber for the optical excitation part can pave the way for miniature endoscopes that can provide optical-resolution photoacoustic images at large optical depth.

Acousto-optical coherence tomography with a digital holographic detection scheme

Acousto-optical coherence tomography (AOCT) consists in using random phase jumps on ultrasound and light to achieve a millimeter resolution when imaging thick scattering media. We combined this technique with heterodyne off-axis digital holography. Two-dimensional images of absorbing objects embedded in scattering phantoms are obtained with a good signal-to-noise ratio. We study the impact of the phase modulation characteristics on the amplitude of the acousto-optic signal and on the contrast and apparent size of the absorbing inclusion.

Towards new applications using capillary waveguides

In this paper we demonstrate the enhancement of the sensing capabilities of glass capillaries. We exploit their properties as optical and acoustic waveguides to transform them potentially into high resolution minimally invasive endoscopic devices. We show two possible applications of silica capillary waveguides demonstrating fluorescence and optical-resolution photoacoustic imaging using a single 330 μm-thick silica capillary. A nanosecond pulsed laser is focused and scanned in front of a capillary by digital phase conjugation through the silica annular ring of the capillary, used as an optical waveguide. We demonstrate optical-resolution photoacoustic images of a 30 μm-thick nylon thread using the water-filled core of the same capillary as an acoustic waveguide, resulting in a fully passive endoscopic device. Moreover, fluorescence images of 1.5 μm beads are obtained collecting the fluorescence signal through the optical waveguide. This kind of silica-capillary waveguide together with wavefront shaping techniques such as digital phase conjugation, paves the way to minimally invasive multi-modal endoscopy.

Multi-scale modeling of photopolymerization for medical hydrogel-implant design

We report on the modeling of a photopolymerizable hydrogel and its application as a replacement of the interior of the intervertebral disc (so called Nucleus Pulposus). The hydrogel is initially injected in its liquid form and then photopolymerized via a small catheter. Therefore, also the light necessary for the photopolymerization is constrained to a small light guide to keep the surgical procedure as minimally invasive as possible. Hence, the hydrogel is photopolymerized inside. For applications with restricted physical access and illumination time, such as an Nucleus Pulposus replacement, photopolymerization of volumes with a large volume/illumination-area ratio becomes highly challenging. During polymerization, the material’s absorption and scattering coefficients change and directly influence local polymerization rates. By understanding and controlling such polymerization patterns, local material properties can be engineered (e.g. elastic modulus, swelling ratio), to match the set of mechanical requirements for the implant. Thus, it is essential to better understand and model photopolymerization reactions. Experiments were conducted by polymerizing a hydrogel in a column-like volume using an optical fiber for light delivery. Quantitative scattering and absorption values as well as monomer conversion rates of the hydrogel sample were validated using a newly established Monte Carlo model for photopolymerization. The results were used to study and predict 3D polymerization patterns for different illumination configurations. In particular, we show an example of a lumbar intervertebral disc replacement where the jelly core of the intervertebral disc (Nucleus Pulposus) is replaced by an in situ photopolymerized hydrogel. The results provide insights for the development of novel endoscopic light-scattering polymerization probes paving the way for a new generation of implantable hydrogels.