Sandro Nielsen

Mediostructures in Bilingual LSP Dictionaries

The mediostructure, also referred to as the cross-reference structure, generally applies to all types of dictionary and is thus an important lexicographic structure in both general and specialised lexicography. However, the theoretical discussion of structural relations in connection with cross-references is a fairly recent one, despite the fact that cross-references are of the utmost importance to the compiler as well as the user of a dictionary. As a result, the discussion of cross-references and their arrangement in general dictionaries in printed form has so far been rather sporadic, and the study of the arrangement of cross-references in LSP dictionaries (let alone bilingual LSP dictionaries) has been very limited. Even though the lexicographic principles for compiling general and specialised dictionaries may, on the whole, be applied to bilingual LSP dictionaries, a closer study of mediostructures in this type of dictionary may clarify some of the aspects involved in specialised lexicography. One reason why the lexicographic mediostructure has only attracted little attention is that, only gradually, theoretical as well as practical lexicographers have realised that the information needed in specialised bilingual dictionaries in printed form is of a more complex nature than that ordinarily found in general bilingual dictionaries (see e.g. RossENBECK 1991, NIELSEN 1994a, and BERGENHOLTZ/TARP 1995). The degree of complexity is particularly high in bilingual dictionaries dealing with culturedependent subject fields, such as economics and law, because each culture has developed its own special characteristics reflecting different ways in which to structure and describe itself. For example, an English-Danish law dictionary will deal with the field of law, but is actually treating two separate legal systems as well as their respective vocabularies and, where appropriate, linguistic structures.

A Functional Approach to User Guides

A1 lmost every gadget or household appliance we buy today .comes with instructions for its use. These products all share the same feature, namely that they have been made to be used for particular purposes, and often in particular situations. Furthermore, the producers want us, the buyers, to use their products in a way that bestfulfils our needs, so they have done studies diat identifywhich functions their products must have to satisfy customer needs. Even generic products that have the same general purpose come with their own instructions because they have different practical functions. If I want to operate my DVD player, I need to read the instructions that came widi it, but diose instructions do not automatically enable me to operate my neighbours DVD player of a different make. The two DVD players have the same generic purpose but have been designed differendy; one has fewer buttons on the frontpanel than die odier; one has more functions than the other, etc.; in situations like these, we need good instructions that enable us to get the most out of our gadgets and appliances. Dictionaries are lexicographic reference works that can be used for various purposes and in more or less well-defined situations. The typical user is likely to consult a monolingual dictionary in connection with reading and understanding a text, whereas the bilingual dictionary helps the user translate a text. In recent years lexicographic scholars have realized the importance of use instructions in dictionaries, and some even argue that the user guide is the second most important component in a dictionary after the wordlist (see, e.g., Kirkpatrick 1989; Landau 2001, 149). With the advent of Internet dictionaries, good user guides may be even more important seen from the users

Classification in Lexicography: The Concept of Collocation in the Accounting Dictionaries

This paper advocates a lexicographical approach to the treatment of collocations in dictionaries. A collocation is presented as an umbrella term for referring to word combinations that are typical for the kind of language in question, and which can be useful for re-use in text production or for assisting in text translation. They are composed of two or more orthographic words, do not constitute a full sentence, but offer potential users the possibility of obtaining relevant information. The way they are dealt with is exemplifi ed in the Accounting Dictionaries, a set of online specialized dictionaries that represent a complex system of specifi c lexicographical and technological options for creating interaction between database and dictionary. By February, the accounting database will allow potential users to retrieve data from twenty-three different accounting dictionaries, each focused on a specifi c function and use situation. For some of these dictionaries, typically translation and production dictionaries, the inclusion of collocations is a must, as this paper aims to show by defending the view that the linguistic concept of collocation is not adequate for lexicography, that the inclusion of collocations is only necessary in some dictionaries, and that their lexicographical consideration must agree with the true nature of lexicography; for instance, with the principle of relevance applied to specialized lexicography, where we mean the condition of being directly connected with the subject fi eld, the dictionary function(s), the use situation in which the dictionaries are intended to be used, their access route(s), and the levels of competence of the intended users. 1. Lexicography is not a Sub-Discipline of Linguistics Proponents of the function theory of lexicography or the theory of the lexicographical functions claim that there is a need for a theory of lexicography, i.e. a system of ideas put forward to explain the making of dictionaries, as well as their characteristics, usefulness, history, and future developments in a systematic and refl ective way (Bergenholtz/Tarp 2002, 2003, 2004; see Tarp (2008) for a review; and Tono (2010) for critical comments on the function theory). One of the main principles of the function theory is that lexicography can no longer be categorized as a subset of disciplines within applied linguistics, but rather that it is seen as part of an information science discipline that offers a theoretical and practical response to information needs detected in society, and as such it is strongly embedded in specifi c cultural, historical, and technological environments. It also maintains that the needs 294 Pedro A. Fuertes-Olivera, Henning Bergenholtz, Sandro Nielsen, Marta Niño Amo giving rise to information tools – be they dictionaries, glossaries, or knowledge databases – belong to the same categories at the highest level of abstraction, as are the data selected to solve these needs irrespective of the specifi c medium in which the data are presented (Bergenholtz 2011; Gouws 2011; Tarp 2011). Within the abovementioned functional approach, recent research is centred on the interaction of the three key lexicographic elements defi ned so far: data, access routes and user’s needs, in extra-lexicographical use situations, typically in communicative, cognitive, interpretative and operational use situations (Tarp, 2008; Verlinde/Leroyer/Binon, 2010). For instance, some scholars within this theoretical framework espouse the integration of lexicography in the realm of information sciences (Bergenholtz, 2011; Leroyer, 2011). This has translated into the coming of age of e-lexicography, i.e., the lexicographic sub-discipline that is mainly concerned with the development, planning, compilation and publication of electronic reference tools (Bergenholtz/Nielsen/Tarp, 2009; Fuertes-Olivera/Bergenholtz, 2011; Granger/Paquot, 2010, 2012; Haß/Schmitz 2010; Kosem/Kosem, 2011). The independent status of lexicography has been emphasized in many recent publications that support the tenets of the function theory of lexicography (cf. Bergenholtz, 2009; Fuertes-Olivera, 2009 and 2010; Fuertes-Olivera/Bergenholtz, 2011; Fuertes-Olivera/Nielsen, 2011 and 2012; Gouws, 2011; Tarp 2008 and 2009; to name just a few). These scholars also defend the interdisciplinary vocation of lexicography and, therefore, the necessity of (re-)evaluating taken-for-granted theories, concepts and methods with the aim of deciding which, if any, can be used without any adaptation or which must be adapted to agree with the true nature of lexicography, which is the compilation and description of information tools that are constructed in order to meet user’s needs in specifi c users’ situations by offering them quick and easytouse data that users can convert into information (Tarp, 2008). An example of the above refl ection is illustrated in this paper with the concept of collocation used in the Accounting Dictionaries. This concept is defi ned in terms of the true nature of lexicography, for instance, in terms of the principle of relevance applied to specialized lexicography. It means the condition of being directly connected with the subject fi eld, the dictionary function(s), the use situation in which the dictionaries are intended to be used, and the levels of competence of the intended users (Fuertes-Olivera/Nielsen 2011 and 2012). Furthermore, the concept of relevance is also connected with accessology (Bergenholtz/Gouws, 2010): collocations allow users to search and retrieve meaningful data. In other words, the principle of relevance determines the selection, inclusion and lexicographical treatment of all the lexicographical data categories that are decisive for potential users by formulating questions and answers connected with the following (Bergenholtz, Nielsen and Tarp, 2009): 1. Preparation of user profi les including all relevant user characteristics. 2. Description of relevant extra-lexicographic user situations. 3. Defi nition of information needs related to specifi c types of users and user situations. 4. Selection and presentation of data from which the required information can be retrieved. 5. Preparation of quick and easy access to the relevant data. 6. Systematisation of a specifi c subject fi eld. 7. General principles of layout and design related to lexicographic tools. 295 Classifi cation in Lexicography: The Concept of Collocation in the Accounting Dictionaries Within the abovementioned framework, this paper describes some of the main characteristics of the Accounting Dictionaries (Section 2), and makes a case for using lexicographical classifi cations in the compilation of dictionaries. In particular, it defends a lexicographical approach to the treatment of collocations in the Accounting Dictionaries (Section 3). Finally, a conclusion summarizes the main ideas discussed in this article. 2. The Accounting Dictionaries The Accounting Dictionaries are a set of online specialized dictionaries that represent a complex system of specifi c lexicographical and technological options for creating interaction between database and dictionary, i.e. the graphical user interface (GUI) of the dictionary. The database contains carefully selected types of data in discrete data fi elds, which are linked and structured so as to facilitate search and presentation. Users consult a dictionary through the homepage and the dictionary sends their queries to the database via a search engine that seeks matches in the database. Once found, the data are sent to the dictionary and presented to users in a predetermined way (Bergenholtz, 2012; Fuertes-Olivera/Nielsen, 2011 and 2012; Fuertes-Olivera/Niño Amo, 2011; Nielsen/Almind, 2011). This set-up allows users to access the data in the database in a number of ways that are designed to provide information, thereby providing them with assistance in different but specifi c types of user situations, as shown below in our analysis of the concept of collocation in the Accounting

Legal Terms in General Dictionaries of English: The Civil Procedure Mystery

Many general language dictionaries contain specialized terms, including legal terms relating to civil lawsuits. The existing literature provides general discussions of scientific and technical terms in ordinary dictionaries but does not specifically address the inclusion of legal terms. This study examines four general dictionaries of English to see how they treat civil procedure terms used in England and Wales in the light of the change of structure of and terminology used in civil proceedings that took place in 1999. Despite being based on large, up-to-date corpora the dictionaries contain some of the old terms but fail to include the new terms that have been in use for more than 15 years. Why this is the case is a mystery. However, some clues indicate that if they pay more attention to the link between dictionary functions, corpora and the data presented in dictionaries, lexicographers may be able to work in a more focussed way that would likely ensure the inclusion of legal terms as well as terms from other subject fields in general dictionaries. This would also satisfy the needs of users.

Example Sentences in Bilingual Specialised Dictionaries Assisting Communication in a Foreign Language

Practitioners, researchers and translators are persons who often have to communicate about domain-specific issues in a foreign language and may consult bilingual specialised dictionaries for help. However, many specialised dictionaries focus on terms even though studies of the foreign language text production process reveal that this also includes grammar, language conventions, genre conventions and style. Specialists can be expected to know conventions and style in their own source language culture but cannot be expected to know how these are realised in a foreign language. Bilingual specialised dictionaries can help users if they contain domain-specific example sentences illustrating how source language convention and style can be transposed to a foreign language. This means that bilingual specialised dictionaries should not merely help users translate terms but be lexicographical tools designed to assist in foreign language communication so that they provide help to practitioners, researchers and translators who produce specialised texts in a foreign language using proper conventions and style.