Scott L. Decker

Evidence of construct similarity in Executive Functions and Fluid Reasoning abilities.

Executive Functions and Fluid Reasoning are both considered to be core aspects of intelligence and mediated by frontal lobe functioning. However, both constructs considerably overlap, and the distinction between the two constructs is unclear. For this study, three measures of Executive Functions and three measures of Fluid Reasoning were administered to a group of participants. Significant correlations were found establishing an empirical association between these two constructs. Factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis also provide evidence for construct similarity. Future research in defining these constructs for measurement purposes and using tests of these constructs in clinical practice is discussed.

Comorbidity among individuals classified with attention disorders

This study examined the frequency of comorbidity among ADHD and ADHD subtypes. Specific aspects of comorbidity were examined in the areas of learning disorders, disruptive behavior disorders, and affective disorders. Two analyses were performed. The first analysis compared the comorbid second and third diagnoses for 287 individuals with a primary diagnosis of ADHD (Predominately Inattentive Type or Predominately Hyperactive-Impulsive Type) with a comparison sample (n = 290) who did not have a primary diagnosis of ADHD. The second analysis examined the comorbidity with specific ADHD subtypes. This analysis compared the comorbid second and third diagnosis of individuals with a primary ADHD subtype diagnosis of Predominately Inattentive (n = 143) with individuals who have a primary ADHD subtype diagnosis of Predominately Hyperactive-Impulsive (n = 143). Results from the first analysis indicated significant overlap between the diagnosis of ADHD and the diagnosis of learning disorders and disruptive behavior disorders but not for affective disorders. Results from the second analysis indicated that only conduct disorders were comorbid with certain ADHD subtypes, with disruptive behavior disorders being more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD Hyperactive-Impulsive Type than with ADHD Inattentive Type.

Development and validation of an attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) executive function and behavior rating screening battery

Attention problems are ubiquitous in clinical practice, commonly found in many childhood learning and behavior disorders. Practitioners need cost- and time-effective methods for determining whether children have attention problems due to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or numerous other conditions. This study examined the utility of a 15-minute ADHD screening battery designed to differentiate ADHD (including inattentive, IT, and combined, CT, subtypes), specific learning disability (SLD), and typical child samples. Results for the 368 children (age 6 to 12 years) revealed that the Trail Making Test–Part B (Time/Errors), Hale–Denckla Cancellation Test (Time/Correct), and Child Attention Profile (Inattention/Overactivity) teacher ratings discriminated between typical and ADHD groups (87% correct classification; sensitivity = .64; specificity = .92) and differentiated between IT, CT, and SLD groups (80% correct classification; IT sensitivity = .82, and specificity = .96; CT sensitivity = .84, and specificity = .82). Discriminant function and Bonferroni post hoc results revealed different neuropsychological and behavioral patterns among groups.

The Bender–Gestalt II

In 2003, the Bender-Gestalt II was published. In the present article, the revision process is described, and major changes to the test are discussed. These changes include additional designs, a memory (recall) phase, Motor and Perception supplementary tests, a detailed observation form, a global scoring system, and a large, nationally representative normative base. Directions for future research are also provided.

Measuring Growth and Decline in Visual-Motor Processes with the Bender-Gestalt Second Edition

The purpose of this study is to develop a change-sensitive scale for evaluating developmental change in visual-motor ability across the life span. A partial-credit item-response model is used to estimate theta values for each age group between 4 and 90 using the Bender-Gestalt II standardization sample (N = 4,000). Results from this study suggest that visual-motor ability has a rapid maturation lasting into middle adolescence, steadily decreases through adulthood, and rapidly declines in later age ranges. These results provide evidence against previous research conclusions that suggested visual-motor ability development ends in late childhood and remains steady across the life span. A case study is provided to demonstrate the practical use of the change-sensitive scale in monitor intervention outcomes.

Construct Validity of the Bender-Gestalt II: Comparison with Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–III

This study investigated the relationships of visuomotor constructs as measured by the Bender-Gestalt II with the subtests of the WISC–III. A factor analysis included the standardized Copy and Recall scores of the Bender-Gestalt II and subtest scores of the WISC–III. The Copy score was predicted to load on measures of visual and spatial thinking and the Recall score on a short-term memory factor. The results of a principal components analysis suggest a four-factor solution with the Bender-Gestalt II Copy score loading on a visual and spatial thinking factor primarily with WISC-III Perceptual Organization subtests. The Recall score loaded on a visual and spatial thinking factor as well as a short-term memory factor with the WISC-III Digit Span subtest. The results suggest the Bender-Gestalt II Copy subtest shared commonality with the visual and spatial tasks given the similarity in the visuomotor demands of each test and was less influenced by processing speed or cultural knowledge than other tests on the visual and spatial thinking factor. Also, results suggest Bender-Gestalt II Recall measures elements of both visual and spatial thinking as well as aspects of short-term memory and memory retrieval. Clinical guidelines for co-administration and underlying processing demands are discussed.

Intervention Psychometrics Using Norm-Referenced Methods for Treatment Planning and Monitoring

This article reviews issues involved with using norm-referenced measures within an intervention validity model. Methodological examination of intervention validity has become more important as intervention methodologies have become part of federal legislation. However, current practice and federal guidelines often implicitly portray a dichotomy between individualized norm-referenced testing and intervention methodologies. This dichotomy is reified in the literature for various reasons. Consequently, it is not clear how information from individualized norm-referenced measures can be used within a treatment or intervention context. This article briefly addresses the perceived dichotomy between traditional psychoeducational assessment and behaviorally oriented assessments and discusses the importance of a multidimensional view of intervention that integrates multiple sources of information to guide intervention planning, implementation, and monitoring. Some practical applications of a hypothesis-testing model that integrates multiple sources of data with intervention-focused practices are used to integrate various assessment strategies for intervention purposes.

Utility of the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test—Second Edition in the Assessment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder':

This study examined the use of the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test–Second Edition (BGT–II) with children diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Previous research has examined the relationship of ADHD and visual-motor functioning based on overall developmental scores or specific emotional indicators. Although several studies have examined the relationship of the previous edition of the BGT–II and ADHD symptoms, psychometric issues associated with the original edition limit the validity of the results. The current study examined the utility of the BGT–II in the assessment of behaviors associated with ADHD. A group of 62 subjects diagnosed with ADHD (M = 11 yr., 5 mo.; 45 male, 17 female) was compared to a control group of 62 subjects randomly selected from the BGT–II standardization data (M= 11 yr., 6 mo; 33 male, 29 female). Several hypotheses were made regarding how areas of deficit, e.g., self-regulation, planning, working memory, and motor control, were expected to manifest in BGT–II performance. With IQ controlled, subjects with ADHD performed more poorly on the BGT–II than subjects with no known disorders; however, the effect size was small (rip2= .07). Emotional indicators intended to assess symptoms of ADHD did not demonstrate diagnostic utility.

Does a continuous measure of handedness predict reading processes and reading-related skills across the lifespan?

The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between handedness, reading skills, and reading-related cognitive processes. Although lateralised differences in brain functioning are well known, research regarding handedness, specific reading skills, and reading-related cognitive processes is ambiguous at best because handedness is often measured as a dichotomous variable rather than a continuous variable. This methodological difference contributes to the diverse research findings, therefore the present investigation addressed these methodological limitations. A large normative sample of up to 1383 participants who ranged in age from 4 to 80 completed the Woodcock Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Revised (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989a, 1989b) or the Woodcock Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Third Edition (Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001) in combination with the Dean Woodcock Sensory Motor Battery (Dean & Woodcock, 2003) lateral preference scale, a continuous measure of handedness. Polynomial multiple regression analyses indicated curvilinear relationships between handedness and reading skills, along with handedness and auditory working memory. Individuals towards the extremes of the handedness continuum performed less well on the reading-related tasks. Therefore, just knowing a general classification of right, left, or mixed handed will not provide significant knowledge regarding lateralisation or potential cognitive and academic consequences but rather knowledge of an individuals hand preference on a continuum may well be useful for evaluative purposes.

Tactile measures in the structure of intelligence.

This study investigated the relationship of tactile abilities within the framework of a hierarchical structure of mental abilities. Data were analysed from 229 participants who were administered tactile measures from the Dean-Woodcock Sensory Motor Battery along with a battery of conormed cognitive measures representative of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model of intelligence. Multiple measures of tactile performance were used including Palm Writing and Object Identification, and each measure included a lateralized measure (i.e., right/left). Factor analytic results suggest tactile measures have a significant relationship with measures of cognitive ability. In this study, tactile measures involving object identification were more related to cognitive measures of visual processing-speed and overall processing speed; whereas, tactile measures involving the recognition of numbers written on the palm of the hand produced high loadings on a separate factor. Results from this study suggest different tactile measures may differentially load on cognitive factors depending on the common processing demands of the tactile and cognitive measures. Suggestions for differentiating common processing demands between tactile and cognitive measures are discussed.