Scott L. Thomson

Aerodynamic transfer of energy to the vocal folds

The aerodynamic transfer of energy from glottal airflow to vocal fold tissue during phonation was explored using complementary synthetic and numerical vocal fold models. The synthetic model was fabricated using a flexible polyurethane rubber compound. The model size, shape, and material properties were generally similar to corresponding human vocal fold characteristics. Regular, self-sustained oscillations were achieved at a frequency of approximately 120 Hz. The onset pressure was approximately 1.2 kPa. A corresponding two-dimensional finite element model was developed using geometry definitions and material properties based on the synthetic model. The finite element model upstream and downstream pressure boundary conditions were based on experimental values acquired using the synthetic model. An analysis of the fully coupled fluid and solid numerical domains included flow separation and unsteady effects. The numerical results provided detailed flow data that was used to investigate aerodynamic energy transfer mechanisms. The results support the hypothesis that a cyclic variation of the orifice profile from a convergent to a divergent shape leads to a temporal asymmetry in the average wall pressure, which is the key factor for the achievement of self-sustained vocal fold oscillations. me rica.

Influence of supraglottal structures on the glottal jet exiting a two-layer synthetic, self-oscillating vocal fold model

A synthetic two-layer, self-oscillating, life-size vocal fold model was used to study the influence of the vocal tract and false folds on the glottal jet. The model vibrated at frequencies, pressures, flow rates, and amplitudes consistent with human phonation, although some differences in behavior between the model and the human vocal folds are noted. High-speed images of model motion and flow visualization were acquired. Phase-locked ensemble-averaged glottal jet velocity measurements using particle image velocimetry (PIV) were acquired with and without an idealized vocal tract, with and without false folds. PIV data were obtained with varying degrees of lateral asymmetric model positioning. Glottal jet velocity magnitudes were consistent with those measured using excised larynges. A starting vortex was observed in all test cases. The false folds interfered with the starting vortex, and in some cases vortex shedding from the false folds was observed. In asymmetric cases without false folds, the glottal jet tended to skew toward the nearest wall; with the false folds, the opposite trend was observed. rms velocity calculations showed the jet shear layer and laminar core. The rms velocities were higher in the vocal tract cases compared to the open jet and false fold cases.

Mammalian laryngseal air sacs add variability to the vocal tract impedance: Physical and computational modeling

Cavities branching off the main vocal tract are ubiquitous in nonhumans. Mammalian air sacs exist in human relatives, including all four great apes, but only a substantially reduced version exists in humans. The present paper focuses on acoustical functions of the air sacs. The hypotheses are investigated on whether the air sacs affect amplitude of utterances and/or position of formants. A multilayer synthetic model of the vocal folds coupled with a vocal tract model was utilized. As an air sac model, four configurations were considered: open and closed uniform tube-like side branches, a rigid cavity, and an inflatable cavity. Results suggest that some air sac configurations can enhance the sound level. Furthermore, an air sac model introduces one or more additional resonance frequencies, shifting formants of the main vocal tract to some extent but not as strongly as previously suggested. In addition, dynamic range of vocalization can be extended by the air sacs. A new finding is also an increased variability of the vocal tract impedance, leading to strong nonlinear source-filter interaction effects. The experiments demonstrated that air-sac-like structures can destabilize the sound source. The results were validated by a transmission line computational model.

Sound generation by steady flow through glottis-shaped orifices

Although the signature of human voice is mostly tonal, it also includes a significant broadband component. Quadrupolelike sources due to turbulence in the region downstream of the glottis, and dipolelike sources due to the force applied by the vocal folds onto the surrounding fluid are the two primary broadband sound generating mechanisms. In this study, experiments were conducted to characterize the broadband sound emissions of confined stationary jets through rubber orifices formed to imitate the approximate shape of the human glottis at different stages during one cycle of vocal fold vibrations. The radiated sound pressure spectra downstream of the orifices were measured for varying flow rates, orifice shapes, and gas mixtures. The nondimensional sound pressure spectra were decomposed into the product of three functions: a source function F, a radiation efficiency function M, and an acoustic response function G. The results show that, as for circular jets, the quadrupole source contributions dominated for straight and convergent orifices. For divergent jets, whistling tonal sounds were emitted at low flow rates. At high flow rates for the same geometry, dipole contributions dominated the sound radiated by free jets. However, possible source-load acoustic feedback may have hampered accurate source identification in confined flows.

Flow-induced vibratory response of idealized versus magnetic resonance imaging-based synthetic vocal fold models.

Recent vocal fold vibration studies have used models defined using idealized geometry. Although these models exhibit important similarities with human vocal fold vibration, some aspects of their motion are less than realistic. In this report it is demonstrated that more realistic motion may be obtained when using geometry derived from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data. The dynamic response of both idealized and MRI-based synthetic vocal fold models are presented. MRI-based model improvements include evidence of mucosal wave-like motion and less vertical movement. Limitations of the MRI-based model are discussed and suggestions for further synthetic model development are offered.

A Differentially Driven Flapping Wing Mechanism for Force Analysis and Trajectory Optimization

Flapping flight has the potential to revolutionize micro air vehicles (MAVs) due to increased aerodynamic performance, improved maneuverability, and hover capabilities. This paper presents the design of a robotic flapping wing mechanism for use in general studies involving flapping flight and laboratory-based experimental optimization of flapping trajectories. The design allows for dynamic adjustment of flapping trajectories in air or liquids with three rotational degrees of freedom on each wing. The design, instrumentation, and control of the mechanism are discussed, and experimental characterization of the mechanisms performance is presented. Preliminary trajectory optimization using a Box-Behnken design approach is used and shows successful parameter optimization. The limitations of the current mechanism are addressed. A survey of flapping mechanisms is presented.

Experiment-Based Optimization of Flapping Wing Kinematics

Optimization of flapping wing trajectory was explored using an experimental apparatus. A scaled-up hawkmoth (Manduca sexta) wing was fabricated and mounted to a three-degree of freedom flapping mechanism. The vertical force generated during flapping was measured using a load cell and the wing path was optimized to maximize the average vertical force. The mechanism design, control, and instrumentation, and the optimization approach are explained. The optimization results, including wing trajectories, are presented and further research topics are discussed.

Effect of inferior surface angle on the self-oscillation of a computational vocal fold model

Geometry of the human vocal folds strongly influences their oscillatory motion. While the effect of intraglottal geometry on phonation has been widely investigated, the study of the geometry of the inferior surface of the vocal folds has been limited. In this study the way in which the inferior vocal fold surface angle affects vocal fold vibration was explored using a two-dimensional, self-oscillating finite element vocal fold model. The geometry was parameterized to create models with five different inferior surface angles. Four of the five models exhibited self-sustained oscillations. Comparisons of model motion showed increased vertical displacement and decreased glottal width amplitude with decreasing inferior surface angle. In addition, glottal width and air flow rate waveforms changed as the inferior surface angle was varied. Structural, rather than aerodynamic, effects are shown to be the cause of the changes in model response as the inferior surface angle was varied. Supporting data including glottal pressure distribution, average intraglottal pressure, energy transfer, and flow separation point locations are discussed, and suggestions for future research are given.

Frequency response of the skin on the head and neck during production of selected speech sounds.

Vibrations within the vocal tract during speech are transmitted through tissue to the skin surface and can be used to transmit speech. Achieving quality speech signals using skin vibration is desirable but problematic, primarily due to the several sound production locations along the vocal tract. The objective of this study was to characterize the frequency content of speech signals on various locations of the head and neck. Signals were recorded using a microphone and accelerometers attached to 15 locations on the heads and necks of 14 males and 10 females. The subjects voiced various phonemes and one phrase. The power spectral densities (PSD) of the phonemes were used to determine a quality ranking for each location and sound. Spectrograms were used to examine signal frequency content for selected locations. A perceptual listening test was conducted and compared to the PSD rankings. The signal-to-noise ratio was found for each location with and without background noise. These results are presented and discussed. Notably, while high-frequency content is attenuated at the throat, it is shown to be detectable at some other locations. The best locations for speech transmission were found to be generally common to males and females.

Error Propagation Dynamics of PIV-based Pressure Field Calculations: How well does the pressure Poisson solver perform inherently?

Obtaining pressure field data from particle image velocimetry (PIV) is an attractive technique in fluid dynamics due to its noninvasive nature. The application of this technique generally involves integrating the pressure gradient or solving the pressure Poisson equation using a velocity field measured with PIV. However, very little research has been done to investigate the dynamics of error propagation from PIV-based velocity measurements to the pressure field calculation. Rather than measure the error through experiment, we investigate the dynamics of the error propagation by examining the Poisson equation directly. We analytically quantify the error bound in the pressure field, and are able to illustrate the mathematical roots of why and how the Poisson equation based pressure calculation propagates error from the PIV data. The results show that the error depends on the shape and type of boundary conditions, the dimensions of the flow domain, and the flow type.