Scott M. Stanley

Assessing Commitment in Personal Relationships.

A modelfor conceptualizing relationship commitment is presented and the development of a measure corresponding to this model described. Commitment is considered as two constructs: personal dedication and constraint commitment. In study one, items developed for the Commitment Inventory (CI) were given to a sample of 141 subjects. Item analyses resulted in selection of the items for the inventory. In study two, 279 subjects yielded data used in further testing of the CI. Tests were conducted on the reliability of the subscales, the factor structure of the CI, and the associations between the CI and various other measures of commitment. Further, the CI was examined in relation to various demographic variables and various measures of other relationship constructs. Overall, the research demonstrated that the CI shows promise as a reliable and valid instrument for measuring commitment. Implications are discussed for both the CI and the concept of commitment.

Preventing marital distress through communication and conflict management training: a 4- and 5-year follow-up

This article reports the 4- and 5-year follow-up results of evaluating the effects of a marital distress prevention program. The program, Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Program (PREP), is a 5-session program designed to teach couples effective communication and conflict management skills. At the 5-year follow-up, intervention, as compared with control, couples had higher levels of positive and lower levels of negative communication skills and lower levels of marital violence. Data are also presented on couples who declined the program. Issues are discussed concerning selection effects, change mechanisms, and future directions for prevention research.

The Effect of the Transition to Parenthood on Relationship Quality: An 8-Year Prospective Study

This longitudinal study examined the effect of the birth of the 1st child on relationship functioning using data from 218 couples (436 individuals) over the course of the first 8 years of marriage. Compared with prebirth levels and trajectories, parents showed sudden deterioration following birth on observed and self-reported measures of positive and negative aspects of relationship functioning. The deterioration in these variables was small to medium in size and tended to persist throughout the remaining years of the study. Mothers and fathers showed similar amounts of change after birth. The amount of postbirth deterioration in relationship functioning varied systematically by several characteristics of the individual, the marriage, and the pregnancy itself. In a group of couples who did not have children, results indicated more gradual deterioration in relationship functioning during the first 8 years of marriage without the sudden changes seen in parents, suggesting that the results seen in the parent sample may be due to birth.

“Hooking Up” Among College Students: Demographic and Psychosocial Correlates

This study investigated 832 college students’ experiences with hooking up, a term that refers to a range of physically intimate behavior (e.g., passionate kissing, oral sex, and intercourse) that occurs outside of a committed relationship. Specifically, we examined how five demographic variables (sex, ethnicity, parental income, parental divorce, and religiosity) and six psychosocial factors (e.g., attachment styles, alcohol use, psychological well-being, attitudes about hooking up, and perceptions of the family environment) related to whether individuals had hooked up in the past year. Results showed that similar proportions of men and women had hooked up but students of color were less likely to hook up than Caucasian students. More alcohol use, more favorable attitudes toward hooking up, and higher parental income were associated with a higher likelihood of having hooked up at least once in the past year. Positive, ambivalent, and negative emotional reactions to the hooking up experience(s) were also examined. Women were less likely to report that hooking up was a positive emotional experience than men. Young adults who reported negative and ambivalent emotional reactions to hooking up also reported lower psychological well-being and less favorable attitudes toward hooking up as compared to students who reported a positive hooking up experience. Based on these findings, suggestions for psychoeducational programming are offered. Additionally, directions for future research are provided.

Premarital education, marital quality, and marital stability: findings from a large, random household survey.

One of the limitations of experimental studies on the effectiveness of premarital education is the reliance on samples of mostly White, middle-class couples. In contrast, although survey methods allow only weak inferences about causal relations, representative surveys can yield important information about use and estimated effects across a diverse population. Using a large random survey of 4 middle American states, the authors found that participation in premarital education was associated with higher levels of satisfaction and commitment in marriage and lower levels of conflict-and also reduced odds of divorce. These estimated effects were robust across race, income (including among the poor), and education levels, which suggests that participation in premarital education is generally beneficial for a wide range of couples.

Maybe I Do Interpersonal Commitment and Premarital or Nonmarital Cohabitation

Explanations for the risks associated with premarital and nonmarital cohabitation (e.g., higher rates of breakup and divorce, lower relationship satisfaction, and greater risk for violent interaction) have focused on levels of conventionality, including attitudes about commitment to the institution of marriage. However, relatively little attention has been paid to the role of interpersonal, not institutional, commitment. In a national random sample (United States), premarital and nonmarital cohabitation were associated with lower levels of interpersonal commitment to partners, suggesting links to further understanding of risk in these relationships. Premarital cohabitation was particularly associated with less committed and less religious males. Prior findings associating cohabitation with lower levels of happiness and religiosity, and higher levels of negative interaction (for men) were replicated.

Timing is everything: Pre-engagement cohabitation and increased risk for poor marital outcomes.

Data from a longitudinal study were used to examine differences among couples that cohabited before engagement, after engagement, or not until marriage. Survey data and objectively coded couple interaction data were collected for 136 couples (272 individuals) after engagement (but before marriage) and 10 months into marriage. At both time points, the before-engagement cohabiters (59 couples) had more negative interactions, lower interpersonal commitment, lower relationship quality, and lower relationship confidence than those who did not cohabit until after engagement (28 couples) or marriage (49 couples), even after controlling for selection factors and duration of cohabitation. Our findings suggest that those who cohabit before engagement are at greater risk for poor marital outcomes than those who cohabit only after engagement or at marriage, which may have important implications for future research on cohabitation, clinical work, and social policy decisions.

Strengthening Marriages and Preventing Divorce: New Directions in Prevention Research

Despite the fact that marital divorce rates have decreased throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s, couples marrying for the first time continue to face a 50% chance of divorce during their lifetime (National Center for Health Statistics [NCHS], in press). Many other couples never divorce but remain in distressed and/or abusive relationships (Notarius & Markman, 1993). The good news is that there is more information available now than ever before to help couples take meaningful steps to prevent divorce and preserve meaningful relationships. The aims of this article are to provide an outline of our approach to preventing marital distress and divorce, to summarize the results from our longitudinal research on prevention, and to describe some of our ongoing efforts to test and disseminate our prevention approach with new populations of couples (i.e., couples in the transition to marriage and transition to parenthood stages). Along the way, we will also highlight key dilemmas we and others face in the dissemination of empirically tested interventions beyond the walls of university research settings. OVERVIEW OF PREVENTION MODEL AND RESEARCH Destructive Relationship Conflict: A Generic Risk Factor A recent National Institute of Mental Health report on prevention argues that marital distress and, in particular, destructive marital conflict are major generic risk factors for many forms of dysfunction and psychopathology (Coie et al., 1993). For example, marital and/or family discord has been linked to higher rates of depression in adults (especially women; Coyne, Kahn, & Gotlib, 1987) and a variety of negative outcomes for children, including conduct disorders (Fincham, Grych, & Osborne, 1993), internalizing problems (e.g., anxiety, depression), and juvenile delinquency (Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992). Furthermore, the destructive effects of marital distress on physical health (e.g., Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 1993) and worker productivity (e.g., Markman, Forthofer, Cox, Stanley, & Kessler, 1994) are now being documented. Evidence from several longitudinal studies of couples suggests that communication problems and destructive marital conflict are among leading risk factors for future divorce and marital distress (e.g., Gottman, 1994; Markman & Hahlweg, 1993). Furthermore, destructive conflict appears to be the most potent mechanism through which the effects of divorce and marital distress are transmitted to spouses and children (Cowan & Cowan, 1992, 1995; Fisher & Fagot, 1993; Grych & Fincham, 1990; Howes & Markman, 1389; Volling & Belsky, 1992). Based on many studies in the field, we have identified patterns of destructive arguing (e.g., escalation, invalidation, withdrawal, pursuit-withdrawal, and negative interpretations) that place couples--and, therefore, families--at risk for a host of problems in the future (Markman, Stanley, & Blumberg, 1994). Longitudinal studies have found that, over time, these destructive patterns (and those similar to them) undermine marital happiness through the active erosion of love, sexual attraction, friendship, trust, and commitment (Gottman, 1993; Markman & Hahlweg, 1993). These positive elements of relationships--the reasons people want to be together--do not naturally diminish over time, but are actively eroded by destructive conflict patterns (Notarius & Markman, 1993). Although dysfunctional communication and conflict patterns are recognizable in premarital interaction (Markman, 1981), they become more difficult to modify once they become established in the interactional styles of couples (Raush, Barry, Hertel, & Swain, 1974). Despite the difficulties inherent in trying to change set patterns, the primary method of helping couples is to treat relationship problems after they have become severe enough for the couple to seek therapy, usually after there have been negative effects on spouses and children (Hahlweg & Markman, 1988). …

Associations between Marital Distress and Work Loss in a National Sample.

This study presents analyses of data from the National Comorbidity Survey to assess the extent to which problems within marriage spill over to produce work loss. Results indicate that marital distress is positively associated with work loss-particularly among men in their first 10 years of marriage. Based on the average earnings of participants, work loss associated with marital problems translates into a loss of approximately

Couples' Reasons for Cohabitation: Associations With Individual Well-Being and Relationship Quality

6.8 billion per year. These findings suggest that family interventions targeted at the prevention of marital problems may result in important psychosocial and economic benefits for business and society. HOWARD J. MARKMAN University of Denver* MARTHA COX University of North Carolina** SCOTT STANLEY University of Denver* RONALD C. KESSLER Harvard Medical School*** *Psychology Department, University of Denver, 2460 South Vine Street, Denver, CO 80208. **Frank Porter Graham Child Development Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB#8180, 105 Smith Level Road, Chapel Hill, NC 27599. ***Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Parcel B, Ist Floor, Boston, MA 02115. Key Words: marital distress, marriage, sex differences, work productivity. Although little research has been focused directly on the way families influence work productivity (Crouter, 1984), evidence from research on the interface between work and family (Eckenrode & Gore, 1990; Moen & Dempster-McClain, 1987) and on determinants of productivity at work (Friedman, 1991; Steers & Rhodes, 1978; Voydanoff, 1980) and from clinical practice with distressed married couples (Stanley & Markman, 1995) suggests that problems at home may affect performance on the job and vice versa. To understand the interconnections of home and work, we must recognize that these influences may operate in both directions. Experiences and stresses at home may influence behavior in the workplace, and experiences in the workplace may influence behavior at home (Crouter, 1984; Eckenrode & Gore, 1990; Kanter, 1977). Though it is difficult to disentangle these reciprocal associations, information concerning linkages between problems in the family and worker productivity is important in considering the social costs of family instability and the cost-effectiveness of programs to increase family stability. The purpose of this study is to present analyses of data from the National Comorbidity Survey (NCS; Kessler et al., 1994) to assess the extent to which problems within marriage spill over to create problems at work. Specifically, the major aim of this article is to estimate the costs of marital distress in terms of reduced job productivity or work loss and to discuss the potential psychosocial and economic benefits of family interventions targeted at the prevention of these costs. MARITAL DISTRESS AND WORK PRODUCTIVITY Although few studies have explicitly examined the effects of home and family factors on work experiences and work productivity, marital distress has been associated with a variety of negative consequences. Marital problems have been linked to mental health problems (Beach, Smith, & Fincham, 1994; Coie et al., 1993). Marital conflict also has been associated with impaired immune function among adults (Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 1993) and slower rates of recovery from a variety of physical health problems (Schmaling & Sher, in press), outcomes that, in turn, have clearly established impacts on worker productivity and absenteeism (e.g., Clark, 1983; Hendrix, Steel, & Schultz, 1987). Consistent with this evidence that marital distress has negative effects on multiple critical life domains, it is plausible that marital distress also might have important consequences for work productivity. Moreover, if marital distress does affect work loss, corporations may find that employee assistance programs that promote family stability are a cost-efficient means of maintaining and even improving productivity. …