Selma Brynolf

Cost-effective choices of marine fuels in a carbon-constrained world: results from a global energy model.

The regionalized Global Energy Transition model has been modified to include a more detailed shipping sector in order to assess what marine fuels and propulsion technologies might be cost-effective by 2050 when achieving an atmospheric CO2 concentration of 400 or 500 ppm by the year 2100. The robustness of the results was examined in a Monte Carlo analysis, varying uncertain parameters and technology options, including the amount of primary energy resources, the availability of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies, and costs of different technologies and fuels. The four main findings are (i) it is cost-effective to start the phase out of fuel oil from the shipping sector in the next decade; (ii) natural gas-based fuels (liquefied natural gas and methanol) are the most probable substitutes during the study period; (iii) availability of CCS, the CO2 target, the liquefied natural gas tank cost and potential oil resources affect marine fuel choices significantly; and (iv) biofuels rarely play a major role in the shipping sector, due to limited supply and competition for bioenergy from other energy sectors.

Energy Efficiency and Fuel Changes to Reduce Environmental Impacts

Many different emissions from ships are directly related to a ships fuel consumption. This is particularly true for emissions to air, which are generated during the combustion process in the engines. Hence, improving the conversion process from fuel energy to transport work can be an effective means of reducing ship emissions. Solutions for reducing ship fuel consumption are generally divided into design and operational measures. Design measures primarily include technical solutions implemented when the ship is designed, constructed, and retrofitted, such as weightreduction, hull coatings, air lubrication, improvement of hull design, optimal propulsion systems and harvesting waste energy. Operational measures are related to how the ship or the fleet is operated and include measures such as weather routing, optimal ship scheduling, improved ship logistics, and on-board energy management. Although reducing fuel consumption always generates an environmental benefit, it should be noted that the use of different fuels results in different impacts on the environment for a given energy conversion efficiency. Another way to reduce emissions is therefore related to the type of fuel used on a ship, e.g., diesel fuels, gases, alcohols and solid fuels. However, choosing a fuel is not an easy process because it is influenced by a broad range of criteria, including technical, environmenta l and economic criteria.

Shipping and the Environment - Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation

This book focuses on the interaction between shipping and the natural environment and how shipping can strive to become more sustainable. Readers are guided in marine environmental awareness, environmental regulations and abatement technologies to assist in decisions on strategy, policy and investments. You will get familiar with possible paths to improve environmental performance and, in the long term, to a sustainable shipping sector, based on an understanding of the sources and mechanisms of common impacts. You will also gain knowledge on emissions and discharges from ships, prevention measures, environmental regulations, and methods and tools for environmental assessment. In addition, the book includes a chapter on the background to regulating pollution from ships. It is intended as a source of information for professionals connected to maritime activities as well as policy makers and interested public. It is also intended as a textbook in higher education academic programmes.

The potential for electrofuels production in Sweden utilizing fossil and biogenic CO2 point sources

This paper maps, categorizes, and quantifies all major point sources of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from industrial and combustion processes in Sweden. The paper also estimates the Swedish technical potential for electrofuels (power-to-gas/fuels) based on carbon capture and utilization. With our bottom-up approach using European data-bases, we find that Sweden emits approximately 50 million metric tons of CO2 per year from different types of point sources, with 65% (or about 32 million tons) from biogenic sources. The major sources are the pulp and paper industry (46%), heat and power production (23%), and waste treatment and incineration (8%). Most of the CO2 is emitted at low concentrations ( 90%, biofuel operations) would yield electrofuels corresponding to approximately 2% of the current demand for transportation fuels (corresponding to 1.5–2 TWh/year). In a 2030 scenario with large-scale biofuels operations based on lignocellulosic feedstocks, the potential for electrofuels production from high-concentration sources increases to 8–11 TWh/year. Finally, renewable electricity and production costs, rather than CO2 supply, limit the potential for production of electrofuels in Sweden.

The Natural Environment and Human Impacts

To comprehend the implications of the various environmental issues that man is inducing on the Earth (with a focus on the shipping industry), an understanding of the Earths major systems is necessary. The natural environment, which consists of air, water, land and living organisms, is a dynamic system in which material and energy are exchanged within and between the individual components. The system is divided into four spheres (atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere), and fluxes of energy and material are exchanged amongst these spheres. The spheres also largely govern the fate of various environmental problems originating from the shipping industry. Therefore, background information related to these spheres is provided, and their major properties and implications are explained. Regarding the atmosphere, radiation and energy budgets are explained in conjunction with the weather and climate. Concerning the hydrosphere, oceanography is introduced together with marine ecology. Addressing the geosphere, the elements in the Earths crust and mineral commodities are discussed. Regarding the biosphere, energy is transferred through food chains; the differences between life in water and life on land are examined. Energy flows through and is stored in these spheres; this stored energy is essential to the natural environment and human society. The different primary energy sources are described and divided into non-renewable and renewable sources. Finally, an introduction to human impacts on the natural environment and to major environmental issues is provided.

Methods and Tools for Environmental Assessment

Selecting measures to reduce the overall environmental impact associated with shipping can be a difficult task, and a systematic approach is needed. There is risk of sub-optimisation and counteraction of different measures with one another if decisions are made based on fragmented decision support. An example of a system effect is the long lifetime of ships, which slows the introduction of new technologies. Therefore, design and retrofits must fulfil not only present but also future requirements for environmental sustainability. This chapter describes the basic details of several methods and tools that can be used in environmental assessments within the shipping industry. The methods and tools described are grouped into three categories: (1) procedural tools, (2) analytical tools and (3) aggregated tools. Examples of procedural tools are environmental impact assessment, multi-criteria decision analysis and risk management; life cycle assessment (LCA) and environmental risk assessment are examples of analytical tools. Aggregated tools include indicators, indices, and footprints.

Improving Environmental Performance in Shipping

This book addresses the environmental issues related to shipping and the natural environment, including descriptions of and proposed solutions to the issues. Currently, challenges exist that must be addressed if shipping is to become sustainable and fulfil the zero vision of no harmful emissions to the environment. In this chapter, we evaluate the steps that have been taken (if any) to limit the various environmental issues and discuss possible steps to be taken to improve environmental performance. Furthermore, future challenges must also be addressed, e.g., the current trend of increasing ship operations in the Arctic. In general, three factors could be addressed in order to reach environmentally sustainable shipping: regulations, technical solutions, and increased environmental awareness.

Emissions to the Air

Seeing the black smoke coming out of the funnel of a manoeuvring ship makes it easy to understand that the ship’s propulsion contributes to the emission of air pollutants. However, there is more than meets the eye going up in smoke. A vast majority of ships use fossil fuels, increasing a positive net contribution of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere when they are combusted. Because the fuels that are used are often of low quality and possess a high sulphur content, a number of other air pollutants are also emitted. Emissions to the air from ships include greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide), sulphur and nitrogen oxides, with both acidifying and eutrophication effects, and different forms of particles, with impacts on health and climate. However, not all emissions to the atmosphere from ships originate from the combustion of fuels for propulsion and energy production. The handling of crude oil as cargo and compounds used in refrigeration systems cause emissions of volatile organic compounds and ozone-depleting substances. The sources of the most important emissions and relevant regulations are described in this chapter.

Measures to Reduce Discharges and Emissions

Discharges and emissions from shipping can be reduced through different technical measures, many of which apply similar principles, e.g., filtration or absorption. Ballast water treatment systems can be used to limit the spread of invasive species. Selective catalytic reduction units and exhaust gas recirculation can be used to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions, and scrubbers and diesel particulate filters can be used to reduce sulphur dioxide and particle emissions . The restoration or remediation of natural environments may also be required after large oil spills. Possible remediation methods include booms, mechanical techniques and dispersant chemicals. These and several additional technical measures to reduce discharges and emissions are described in this chapter, including measures to reduce the impact of the infrastructure related to the shipping industry.