Sheona Shackleton

The role of land-based strategies in rural livelihoods: The contribution of arable production, animal husbandry and natural resource harvesting in communal areas in South Africa

The majority of South Africas rural population resides in the former homelands. Although cash from urban and government sources is the mainstay of the rural economy in many areas, the multiple and diverse livelihood base of rural households is not widely recognised. This diversity includes the land-based strategies of arable farming, livestock husbandry and consumption and trade in natural resources. This article examines recent and emerging literature from a livelihood perspective in terms of the role and value of each of these three land-based livelihood sectors. We conclude that the contribution of land-based activities to rural livelihoods is important in both financial and social terms, and is probably greater than previously appreciated within the whole gamut of livelihood strategies adopted by rural households, including transfers from formal employment and state pensions. We examine the policy implications of this for land and agrarian reform in South Africa.

Markets drive the specialization strategies of forest peoples

Engagement in the market changes the opportunities and strategies of forest-related peoples. Efforts to support rural development need to better understand the potential importance of markets and the way people respond to them. To this end, we compared 61 case studies of the commercial production and trade of nontimber forest products from Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The results show that product use is shaped by local markets and institutions, resource abundance, and the relative level of development. Larger regional patterns are also important. High-value products tend to be managed intensively by specialized producers and yield substantially higher incomes than those generated by the less specialized producers of less managed, low-value products. We conclude that commercial trade drives a process of intensified production and household specialization among forest peoples.

Agroforestry Tree Products (AFTPs): Targeting Poverty Reduction and Enhanced Livelihoods

Agroforestry tree domestication emerged as a farmer-driven, market-led process in the early 1990s and became an international initiative. A participatory approach now supplements the more traditional aspects of tree improvement, and is seen as an important strategy towards the Millennium Development Goals of eradicating poverty and hunger, promoting social equity and environmental sustainability. Considerable progress has been made towards the domestication of indigenous fruits and nuts in many villages in Cameroon and Nigeria. Vegetatively-propagated cultivars based on a sound knowledge of ‘ideotypes’ derived from an understanding of the tree-to-tree variation in many commercially important traits are being developed by farmers. These are being integrated into polycultural farming systems, especially the cocoa agroforests. Markets for Agroforestry Tree Products (AFTPs) are crucial for the adoption of agroforestry on a scale to have meaningful economic, social and environmental impacts. Important lessons have been learned in southern Africa from detailed studies of the commercialization of AFTPs. These provide support for the wider acceptance of the role of domesticating indigenous trees in the promotion of enhanced livelihoods for poor farmers in the tropics. Policy guidelines have been developed in support of this sustainable rural development as an alternative strategy to those proposed in many other major development and conservation fora.

Use patterns and value of Savanna resources in three Rural villages in South Africa

Rural communities in South Africa harvest a diversity of wild resources from communal woodlands for home consumption and sale. The contribution these resources make to the rural economy has been little recognized, and few studies have attempted to place a monetary value on this use. This paper describes three case studies which aimed to determine the value of savanna resources for the livelihoods of rural households.Use patterns and values of resources in three villages of differing socioeconomic status were determined using household interviews, PRA techniques and key informant interviews. Questions were designed to establish the types of products used, frequency of use, quantities used, seasonality of use, longevity of durable resources, local prices, and the extent of trade.All households were procuring at least some woodland resources, with the most frequently used being fuel wood, wood for implements, edible herbs and fruits, grass for brushes, and insects. Patterns of resource use varied across villages. The most “rural” village used the greatest diversity of resources and had the highest number of users for most resources. Gross value of resources consumed per household per year ranged from R28I9 to R7238. Total value was highest in the less obviously resource dependent village, primarily the result of higher local prices due to greater extraction costs and a larger market for traded goods. Values are comparable to those contributed by other land-based livelihood activities such as subsistence cultivation and livestock production.ResumenLes communautés rurales en Afrique du Sud récoltent une variété de ressources naturelles provenant de régions boisées qui appartiennent á la communauté pour la consommation personnelle et pour la vente. La contribution que ces resources apportent á l’ économie rurale a été peu reconnue, et peu d’études ont tenté d’assigner une valeur monétaire à ces usages. Cet article décrit trois cas d’étude qui ont pour but de déterminer la valeur des ressources de la savane dans la vie des families rurales.Les motifs d’utilisation et les valeurs des ressources furent estimées dans trois villages de statuts socio-économiques différents, en combinant entretiens avec les families, techniques de PRA et entretiens de sources dés. Les questions furent concues afin d’établir les types de produits utilisés dans chaque maisonnée, la fréquence d’utilisation, les quantités utilisées, le degré d’utilisation par saison, la longévité de ressources durables, les prix locaux et l’étendue du marché.Chaque famille se procure au moins quelques unes des ressources provenant de régions boisées; les plus utilisées sont le bois de chauffage, le bois pour les outils, les herbes et fruits comestibles, l’herbe pour les brosses et les insectes. Les motifs d’utilisation ont varié selon les villages. Les villages les plus “ruraux” utilisaient la plus grande variété de ressources et possédaient une nombres d’usagers plus important dans le cas de la plupart des ressources. La valeur totale brute des ressources consommées par maisonnée par année variait entre R28I9 et R7238. La valeur totale s’est avérée être plus élevée dans les villages qui semblaient dé-pendre le moins sur les ressources: ceci étant le résultat de prix locaux plus élevés basés sur des coûts d’extraction plus importants et un marché pour les biens échangés (non-vendus). Les valeurs obtenues sont comparables à celles contribuées par d’autres activités qui servent de moyens d’existence et qui proviennent de la terre; par exemple, la culture comme moyen de subsistence et l’élevage de bétail.

Wood supply and demand around two rural settlements in a semi-arid Savanna, South Africa

Abstract Data on fuelwood harvesting, construction timber requirements and the number of people in two settlements in the Eastern Transvaal Lowveld (Athol and Welverdiend) is combined with woody biomass information in the form of a numerical model. This allows the investigation of the relationship between woodland supply and local wood demand. The effects of uncertainty in primary data collection, and of possible changes to the harvesting pressure on the woodland are illustrated. Given the assumptions of the model, current harvest rates around Athol are shown to be sustainable, although the increase in wood demand resulting from an estimated population growth rate of 3% will cause woodland stocks to decline after 20 years. The Welverdiend model shows a marked imbalance between available supply and demand. Continuation of current harvesting practice would lead to severe deforestation within 15 years. The investigative scenarios presented emphasize the advantages to be gained from rapid reduction in woody biomass harvesting, resulting in better long term sustainable harvests. The significant changes in per capita fuelwood harvest would however seriously impact on households, and it is thus important that the models be utilized within a much broader holistic framework in the development of solutions appropriate to local areas.

Knowledge on Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra with emphasis on its importance as a non-timber forest product in South and southern Africa: a summary. part 1: taxonomy, ecology and role in rural livelihoods

Synopsis Sclerocarya birrea (marula) is a widespread species throughout the semi-arid, deciduous savannas of much of sub-Saharan Africa. It is widely used by rural populations in most countries in which it is found. It has multiple uses, including the fruits, kernels, oil, bark, wood and leaves. Because of these multiple uses, and its significance in the landscape, several African cultures have specific beliefs and ceremonies associated with this species, and it is often maintained in homestead and arable plots. Because of the widespread occurrence, potentially high fruit production and use of S. birrea it has frequently been identified as a key species to support the development of rural enterprises based on the fruit, beer, oil or nuts and therefore as a species for potential domestication. Localised breeding and cultivation initiatives commenced in the 1970s and some continue. Interest in this species was renewed after the development of a highly successful liqueur using extracts from the fruit. This has developed further in southern Africa over the last 3 to 5 years, especially commercialisation initiatives orientated towards befitting the rural poor. Recently, the UK Department for International Development (DFID) initiated a project to examine the impacts of commercialisation of non-timber forest products, such as marula, on the livelihood capital ofthe rural poor. As a first phase, the research team compiled a comprehensive literature review of S. birrea, with emphasis on possible commercialisation. This is to be published in two parts. The first part deals with the taxonomy, ecology and its subsistence use and cultural value to rural households. The second part of the review will focus on issues relating to specific properties of the marula, management, intellectual property and its potential commercialisation.Sclerocarya birrea (marula) is a widespread species throughout the semi-arid, deciduous savannas of much of sub-Saharan Africa. It is widely used by rural populations in most countries in which it is found. It has multiple uses, including the fruits, kernels, oil, bark, wood and leaves. Because of these multiple uses, and its significance in the landscape, several African cultures have specific beliefs and ceremonies associated with this species, and it is often maintained in homestead and arable plots. Because of the widespread occurrence, potentially high fruit production and use of S. birrea it has frequently been identified as a key species to support the development of rural enterprises based on the fruit, beer, oil or nuts and therefore as a species for potential domestication. Localised breeding and cultivation initiatives commenced in the 1970s and some continue. Interest in this species was renewed after the development of a highly successful liqueur using extracts from the fruit. This has developed further in southern Africa over the last 3 to 5 years, especially commercialisation initiatives orientated towards befitting the rural poor. Recently, the UK Department for International Development (DFID) initiated a project to examine the impacts of commercialisation of non-timber forest products, such as marula, on the livelihood capital of the rural poor. As a first phase, the research team compiled a comprehensive literature review of S. birrea , with emphasis on possible commercialisation. This is to be published in two parts. The first part deals with the taxonomy, ecology and its subsistence use and cultural value to rural households. The second part of the review will focus on issues relating to specific properties of the marula, management, intellectual property and its potential commercialisation. Southern African Forestry Journal No.194 2002: 27-42

Opportunities for enhancing poor women’s socioeconomic empowerment in the value chains of three African non-timber forest products (NTFPs)

SUMMARY The value chains of three internationally important dry forest NTFPs, namely gum arabic, gum olibanum (frankincense) and honey from Burkina Faso, Ethiopia and Zambia respectively, were assessed in terms of the roles played by women and the benefits they obtain from their involvement. Women perform a variety of functions at different stages in the value chains, but their roles tend to be poorly visible and inadequately acknowledged, largely because they are either operating in the informal sector, are part-time employees, or carry out their activities at home between family responsibilities. Where womens roles are more prominent, this is primarily due to gender orientated interventions by external agencies. Several constraints to fostering womens empowerment were identified, with some easier to overcome than others. Particularly difficult to address are gender based, social-cultural barriers. Suggestions for enhancing womens benefits include: greater recognition of informal markets, the opportunities and constraints associated with them, and their position relative to export markets; improved support for collective action where this can provide women with greater voice, negotiating power, and help with economies of scale; more targeted training that addresses areas identified by women as useful and important to them; time-saving technologies and support systems such as child care; and creating greater gender awareness amongst stakeholders.

Domestication potential of Marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp caffra)in South Africa and Namibia: 1. Phenotypic variation in fruit traits

Studies of tree-to-tree variation in fruit traits are a pre-requisite for cultivar development. Fruits were collected from each of 63 marula (Sclerocarya birrea) trees in Bushbuckridge, South Africa and from 55 trees from the North Central Region of Namibia. The South African trees were in farmers fields, communal land and natural woodland, at three sites: Acornhoek road, Allandale/Green Valley and Andover/Wits Rural Facility. The Namibian trees were all from farmers fields in three areas: North east, North west and West. The fruits were partitioned into skin and flesh/juice to examine the extent of the variation found in different components of marula fruits from different trees. Namibian fruits were significantly larger than those from South Africa (26.7 vs 20.1 g), due to their greater pulp mass (22.2 vs 16.2 g), especially the flesh/juice component. In South African fruits, those from farmers fields were significantly larger in all components (Fruit mass = 23.6 vs 19.3 and 18.0 g in natural woodland and communal land respectively). In Namibia, mean fruit mass did not differ significantly across sites (25.5 − 27.0 g). However, within each sample there was highly significant and continuous variation between trees in the pulp (S Africa = 7.5 − 31.3 g; Namibia = 8.3 − 36.0 g) and flesh/juice mass (S Africa = 2.2 − 7.6g; Namibia = 3.8 − 22. 6g), indicating the potential for selection of trees producing superior products. The fruits of the Namibian trees were compared with the fruits from one superior tree (‘Namibian Wonder) with a mean fruit mass of 69.9 g The percentage frequency distribution of fruit mass from trees in farmers fields in South Africa was skewed, while being bimodal in North east and North west populations from Namibia, suggesting that at these sites farmers are engaged in domestication through truncated selection of the best mother trees. It is concluded that there are trees in on-farm populations that have great potential to be propagated vegetatively as selected cultivars.

Use and trading of wild edible herbs in the central lowveld savanna region, South Africa

The use, processing, trading, cultivation and nurturing of wild edible herbs was recorded across a rainfall gradient in the Mpumalanga lowveld. Nine villages, in three transects across the prevailing west-east rainfall gradient, were sampled by means of 20 households per village. All households made use of wild edible herbs to some extent, with households in the wettest region using the greatest diversity. The duration of availability of selected species was increased through drying, storing and processing for later consumption. Such activities were more common in the drier regions relative to the wetter villages. Approximately 38% of the respondents cultivated or nurtured wild edible herbs within their homestead or arable fields, whereas more than 77% grew exotic commercial vegetables. One quarter of respondents traded in edible herbs, largely in the winter months. Very few obtained a significant income in this way, but even casual trading provided vital supplementary income for low-income households.

Non-timber forest products in the global context

Part 1: Introduction - Non-Timber Forest Products in the Global Context.- Non-Timber Forest Products: Concept and Definitions.- Evolving Perspectives on Non-Timber Forest Products.- Part 2: Multiple Roles and Values of Non-Timber Forest Products.- From Subsistence, to Safety Nets and Cash Income: Exploring the Diverse Values of Non-Timber Forest Products for Livelihoods and Poverty Alleviation.- Non-Timber Products and Markets: Lessons for Export-Oriented Enterprise Development from Africa.- Cultural Importance of Non-Timber Forest Products: Opportunities they Pose for Bio-Cultural Diversity in Dynamic Societies.- From the Forest to the Stomach: Bushmeat Consumption from Rural to Urban Settings in Central Africa.- Part 3: Systems for Sustainable Management of Non-Timber Forest Products.- Harvesting Non-Timber Forest Products Sustainably: Opportunities and Challenges.- Timber and Non-Timber Forest Product Extraction and Management in the Tropics: Towards Compatibility?.- Pro-Poor Governance of Non-Timber Forest Products: The Need for Secure Tenure, the Rule of Law, Market Access and Partnerships.- Non-Timber Forest Products and Conservation: What Prospects?.- Part 4: Building on the Opportunities Offered by Non-Timber Forest Products.- Regulating Complexity: Policies for the Governance of Non-Timber Forest Products.- Building a Holistic Picture: An Integrative Analysis of Current and Future Prospects for Non-Timber Forest Products in a Changing World