Shigeru Morichi

ANALYSIS OF PEDESTRIAN BEHAVIOR AND PLANNING GUIDELINES WITH MIXED TRAFFIC FOR NARROW URBAN STREETS

The aim of this study was to examine pedestrian behavior and suggest guidelines for analyzing pedestrian traffic flow in narrow urban streets with mixed traffic. For the analysis of pedestrian behavior, 15 streets around an urban railway station in Tokyo were surveyed, and several parameters were obtained, such as pedestrian paths around stationary obstacles; share of pedestrians using the sidewalk as a factor of street environment and traffic conditions; and influence distance of and for bicycles and cars. With respect to planning guidelines, the authors have simultaneously defined a new index of time-space occupancy (Qt-si) of traffic modes in mixed-traffic conditions that considers the occupancy of time and space in the time-space diagram. Also, a new concept for level-of-service standards has been suggested for mixed-traffic conditions that employs the concept of time-space occupancy of each mode and hindrance/conflict between modes.

Sustainable transport development in East Asian megacities

This paper examines the special characteristics of East Asian (EA) megacities with a view that such characteristics create unique challenges and opportunities and may call for special policies in order to develop sustainable transport system. After examining the key issues, challenges and past policy responses in selected EA megacities, the paper suggests some of the strategic policies that are more relevant for Asian megacities but not discussed much in academic literature or practical policy documents. These include the timing of mass rapid transit (MRT) development, dynamic harmonisation of fare level of different public transport modes and hierarchical network of urban transport.

Improving Institutions, Funding, and Financing

Addressing urban transport issues and implementing policy measures recommended in previous chapters call for a provision of effective institutions including funding and financing mechanisms. As urban transport systems have some characteristics of public goods, role of public sector is significant particularly in investment and regulation. However, private sector’s role in recent year has been expanded and redefined. The performance of both public and private sectors depends upon the institutional framework in place. Urban transport in developing megacities suffers from the lack of effective institutional arrangements. The expanding boundary of functional metropolitan area covering a multitude of administrative units makes the task of urban governance and coordination much challenging. Further as urban transport activities are more capital intensive, adequate provision of funding and financing is prerequisite for the success of any well-designed plans and policy. However, funding and financing gaps have remained as a major barrier in implementing necessary policy measures.

Transport Strategies in Reverse Logistics for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society

Improvement of transport efficiency in reverse logistics contributes not only to direct efficiency gains but also to promotion of waste recycling. This paper first examines the existing situation of waste management and related reverse logistics systems in Japan. Some examples of efficient reverse logistics systems in the United States are also discussed. In considering the case of the Tokyo Prefecture area, alternative transport systems for waste management reverse logistics are evaluated using a vehicle routing model based upon a genetic algorithm. The modeling results show that the milk-run type cooperative truck transport in combination with bulk-hauling railway transport is the most cost-effective option with significant benefits in terms of lower CO2 emissions.

Policy Proposal for Intercity Passenger Transport

The transport sector contributes about 20% of total greenhouse gas emissions. Despite various policy initiatives, transport sector emissions have an increasing trend, primarily due to increasing travel demand globally. However, the travel demand and emission pattern varies widely across countries in the world. Even among OECD countries, significant differences can be observed in overall travel demand, choice of travel modes, and resulting loads of CO2 emission. As shown in Figure 2.1 (Chap. 2), distance travelled per capita per year is around 30,000 km in the USA, whereas the figure for France is around 15,000 km, Germany is around 13,000 km, and Japan is only around 10,000 km. Moreover, the share of railways in total passenger travel (passenger-km) is much higher in Japan, accounting for 30 % of total. In comparison, the railway share in EU countries is around 10 %, while in the USA railways account for a negligibly low share of passenger transport. In the USA, passenger transport is dominated by private automobiles and air transport. As a result of such different patterns, the intensity of transport sector CO2 emissions across these countries varies significantly.

Urban Transport Dynamics

Urban transport system, which comprises many interconnected subsystems, is characterized by complexities. Some observers even described it as “a system of system” (e.g., see Kaijser 2005). The performance of urban transport depends upon the state and interactions of all related factors of these subsystems and other exogenous factors. However, changes in economic, demographic, and spatial aspects of the metropolitan area bring corresponding changes in the state of various system elements. Most importantly, the pattern of transport demand along with users preference changes over time (Mayer and Miller 2001). The multiple subsystems undergoing dynamic changes significantly increase the complexities of the urban transport system and, thereby, pose difficult challenges to the policymakers. Several policy paradoxes and dilemma are the norms rather than exceptions in the domain of urban transport policy. Understanding such complex and dynamic characteristics of urban transport system is essential to explore effective policy options particularly for developing Asian megacities. This would also help to overcome the apparent dichotomy of short-term versus long-term perspective, which often takes the center stage while debating important urban transport policies particularly in developing countries. The core arguments advanced in this chapter are based on the premise that the notion of short term versus long term is, in a way, false dichotomy and is basically the result of ignoring underlying currents of urban transport dynamics while setting policy strategies.

Promoting Integrated Urban Transport System

Previous chapters dealt with the key components of urban transport system, such as urban roads, public transport, land use, and so forth, focusing on issues and policy options for the Asian megacities. Addressing policy issues on these components certainly contributes to improving overall urban transport system. However, policy strategies designed to address issues on individual components may have only limited impacts. In particular, the special context of the Asian megacities calls for a more systemic and integrated approach to work out sustainable solutions to the urban transport problems. The concept of integrated urban transport as currently debated among both academic and policy communities may provide useful framework to take this challenge. Coordinated or integrated transport system has been remained one of the major transport policy agenda since long ago in developed countries. However, actual transport policy path has been often drifting away from the concept of integrated urban transport, and the concept itself has been subjected to many ups and downs (Scholler-Schwedes 2010).

Evolving Concepts in Urban Transport

Prevailing urban transport system in megacities is a combined result of dynamic interaction of institutions; the society’s evolving need in mobility brought about by their changing physical, social, economic, and political environments; and the advancement in technology. The development of urban transport in different cities involved a process of modernization and adaptation. European and American cities, which followed similar patterns of urban transport development up to the early twentieth century, pursued quite different policy directions in the late twentieth century. Asian cities, on the other hand, followed a trend of adaptation in the past but gradually moved to locally adaptable systems.

Specialties of Asian Megacities

Chapter 2 reviewed the historical evolution of urban transport technologies and system along with related theoretical concepts and practical measures. As noted, most of the concepts that provide conceptual underpinnings for practical policies in the urban transport field were influenced by the situation and problems in now developed western cities. Given the theoretical rigor and conceptual consistency, the concepts are universally acceptable. However, translating these into practical policy agenda for a city may require an examination of the local conditions. The basic characteristics of Asian megacities and the nature of urban transport problems seem to be different from those in megacities from other parts of the world. Without considering such typical characteristics, appropriate policies for sustainable transport development cannot be formulated, let alone effectively implemented. In this chapter, specialties of Asian megacities that are relevant for urban transport policies are first discussed, and implications for urban transport policies are drawn discussing key issues and challenges.

Conclusion: New Perspective and Policy Recommendations

As highlighted in the preceding chapters, there is a good stock of theoretical and empirical knowledge, which has been generated over time to address various urban transport problems. Important policy insights have been drawn out of this knowledge base, which are further translated into a wide range of practical policy measures. Despite the fact that most of these policy measures were first worked out to respond to the urban transport problems in developed cities, they are equally useful and potentially effective to address the transport problems in Asian megacities. Many developing Asian megacities have made concerted efforts to address emerging urban transport problems. However, urban transport condition in these megacities is continuously degrading. Now the question is: Where does the problem lie?