Simon J. Eaves

Patterns of play of international rugby union teams before and after the introduction of professional status.

Many methods of assessing game intensity that are appropriate to the research scientist- including heart rate analysis (Ali and Farrally1), blood lactates (Deutsch, Maw, Jenkins and Reaburn2) and time-motion analysis (Reilly and Thomas3 and Withers, Maricic, Wasilewski and Kelly4) - may have limited application in the ‘real world’. Hence in game analysis, the relative simplicity of videotape recordings may be considered the most appropriate tool for the rugby coach in terms of applicability and reproducibility. Anecdotal evidence would suggest that since the introduction of professional rugby union, the game has become more intense due to increases in total activity duration and speed of play. Analysis using a modified time/motion approach specifically relating to activity times may provide detailed information on the relative intensity of the game. The purpose of this study was to compare the time and frequency of activity and ball re-cycling (using videotaped recordings) of International Rugby Union teams in four discrete periods spanning the inception of professional rugby in the mid 1990’s with particular reference to periods spanning the inception of professional status in 1995/6. Individual activity times (initial possession to completed tackle) were recorded for twelve pre-recorded matches (1988-2002) taken from the Five and Six Nations Championships; using a standard lap split time stopwatch and hand notation system. Intra-observer reliability analysis of ruck time indicated 0.11sec difference between observations. This represented 96% level of agreement. For activity time, intra-observer reliability was calculated as 0.18 sec difference between observations. This represented an agreement of 97%. Repeated measure ANOVA indicated highly significant differences between periods activity times (F = 10.16, df = 3 12, p = .001). Post hoc analysis (Tukey HSD) revealed differences to be between period 1 compared to period 3 and period 1 compared with period 4. No main effect was established for ruck time. Analysis of ruck frequency revealed significant differences (F = 13.87, df = 3, 12, p < .0005) between games periods. Post hoc analysis indicated these to be between periods 4 and 2 (p = .003) and 4 and 1 (p = .0005). Repeated measures analysis for frequency of activity revealed significant main effects for period (F = 5.39, df = 3, 12, p <. 01). Results of post hoc analysis revealed differences in activity instances between periods 1 and 4 (p = .01). Analysis of ball in play time comparing pre and post 1995 revealed a significant main effect for period (F = 12.97, df = 1, 14, p = .003) with ball in play 26.5% of the time in the period pre-1995 compared to 32.1% of the time in the period post-1995. This represents a mean time difference of 4 minutes and 45 seconds of play. It was concluded that since the inception of professional status in rugby union, the mean time players spend in game activity has been significantly reduced, whilst total game activity has been increased. Similarly the frequency of rucks has significantly increased in the post professional era, although the speed of ball recycling has been shown to be relatively consistent during 1988-2002. This indicates that the game activity patterns may have shifted towards a faster ruck dominated game which includes more phases of play. Consequently, game activity time has increased indicating a positive shift in game activity duration. Accordingly, such changes in the game need to be considered in designing training schedules for rugby union.

The consequences of the introduction of professional playing status on game action variables in international northern hemisphere rugby union football

The aims of this study were to examine the consequences of the introduction of professional playing status in 1995 on game variables in international rugby union football, and secondly to provide a longitudinal game map for use in future research. Twelve ‘Five Nations’ Championship games between 1988 and 1995 (pre-professional Era), sub-divided into two Periods (1988-92 and 1995-97) and twelve ‘Five’ and ‘Six Nations’ Championship games between 1997 and 2002 (professional Era), sub-divided into two Periods (1997-99 and 2000-02) were analysed using a sequential data gathering hand notation system. Initial intra- observer reliability analysis established that the level of observer agreement exceeded 97% for all game variables. Normalised profiles were also constructed for each variable. These profiles demonstrated that the data for all variables reached stables means within 6 full games. Frequency data and frequency data per unit time were assessed with the Mann-Whitney U statistic to examine Era differences and the Kruskal Wallis H tests to identify Period differences. Where Period differences were indicated, the Mann-Whitney U test was used as the appropriate post-hoc procedure. Analysis identified significant increases (P < 0.005) in the frequency of rucks, dummy/scrum half passes, open play passes and total passes, and significant decreases (P < 0.005) in the frequency of lineouts, kicks out of play, total game kicks, mauls, set possessions and activity possessions from the pre- to the professional era. No significant difference was identified for either scrums or kicks in play frequencies. Analysis of these variables normalised to ball in play time resulted in significant increases (P < 0.005) in the frequency of dummy/scrum half passes, rucks, lineouts, and a significant decrease (P < 0.005) in the frequency of mauls, scrums, total game kicks, kicks out of play, kicks in play, and set possessions across the Eras. Significant (P < 0.005) Period main effects were identified for the frequency of lineouts, kicks out of play, scrums, (trend decreasing across Periods) total game passes, passes from the dummy/scrum half position, rucks, activities/phases, and set possession (P = 0.01) and total game kicks (P = 0.006) (trend increasing across Periods). Analyses of these variables normalised to ball in play time resulted a significant (P < 0.05) Period main effects being identified for total game kicks, kicks out of play, kicks in play, mauls, scrums, set possessions,(trend decreasing across Periods) passes from the dummy/scrum half position (trend increasing across Periods) and offloads (no identifiable trend across Periods). It was concluded that the introduction of professional playing status in rugby union had had a marked effect on game action variables and, as a consequence the playing pattern of the game is significantly different in the professional Era and Periods compared to the pre-professional Era and Periods.

Assessing the impact of the season and rule changes on specific match and tactical variables in professional rugby league football in the United Kingdom.

Rule changes in sport are an inherent part of the changing environment for players, coaches and spectators. However, the impact of these rule changes is often not assessed objectively. The aim of this study was to establish whether rule changes implemented between 1992 and 2000 significantly influenced the playing pattern of professional rugby league teams. A specifically designed hand notation system was used to assess 17 key variables in 48 full game performances over four time Periods (1988-92; 1993-95; 1997-98; 2000-02). Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed a significant (P<0.01) increase in the frequency per unit time of dummy half passes in the Period immediately after the introduction of the 10-m rule; a significant (P < 0.01) decrease in the percentage of tackle errors and an increase in the frequency per unit time of dummy half passes (P < 0.01) in the Period immediately following the change of playing season (1996) and a significant (P < 0.01) decrease in the percentage of kicks out of play in the Period immediately following the introduction of the 40-20 rule. It was concluded that rule changes implemented between 1992 and 2000 had little impact on the playing patterns of professional rugby league teams.

The impact of rule and playing season changes on time variables in professional in rugby league in the United Kingdom

In Rugby League football several rule changes have been implemented over the past two decades, yet the impact of these rule changes on the playing patterns of the game have yet to be objectively assessed. The aim of this study was to establish whether these rule changes significantly influenced selected time variables in professional rugby league football in the United Kingdom (UK). A specifically designed hand notation system was used to assess the time variables in 48 full game performances over four time Periods (1988-92; 1993-95; 1997-98; 2000-02). Data were analysed using One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with Tukey HSD as the post-hoc test. Significant Period main effects were identified for mean ruck time (F3, 22 = 19.62, P < 0.0005) total ruck time (F3, 22 = 7.60, P < 0.002) and continuous possession time (F3, 22 = 7.39, P < 0.002). It was concluded that the introduction of the 10-m offside rule (1993) appears to have resulted in a significant change at the ruck; increasing the speed of the ‘play the ball and the rule changes associated with the introduction of the summer playing season (1996) resulted in a further increase in ruck speed.

A comparative analysis of professional rugby league football playing patterns between Australia and the United Kingdom

The aim of this study was to establish whether the playing patterns of professional rugby league teams in the English Super League (SL) were different from teams playing in the Australian National Rugby League (NRL). Twelve games of professional rugby league were notated post-event using the SportsCode Elite system. Initial intra-observer reliability analysis established that the level of observer agreement exceeded 95% for all variables and for the identification of playing zones. Data analysis revealed a significant difference in the percentage of plays in the defence zone (t = −3.33, P <0.01) and transition zone (t = 3.67, P < 0.005), with teams in the NRL spending less time in transition, but more time in the defence zone. Analysis further revealed that teams in the NRL utilised the hit up in the attack zone significantly more than teams in the SL (t = −2.29, P < 0.05) and employed the turtle tackle significantly more when the play was in their defence zone (t = −3.31, P < 0.009). It was concluded that teams in the NRL are more adept than teams in SL at confining their opponents to the defence zone. In addition they play a more expansive game in the transition zone which enables them to move more quickly into the attack zone.

The effect of experiential anchoring on the reproducibility of exercise regulation in adolescent children

In this study, we examined whether a preparatory perceptual ‘anchoring’ technique would enhance the reproducibility (test–retest reliability) of adolescent children in their ability to self-regulate their exercise output on the basis of their effort perceptions. Forty-one adolescents aged 12.6±0.7 years (mean±s), randomly assigned to either an anchor or non-anchor group, undertook two identical production trials (three 3-min cycle ergometer bouts at levels 3, 6 and 8 of the Childrens Effort Rating Table) over 8 days. Before each trial, the anchor group received an experiential (exercise) trial intended to provide a frame of reference for their perceived exertions. The test–retest reproducibility of the heart rates and power outputs produced during the production trials was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients and 95% limits of agreement analysis. For the anchor group, the intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from 0.68 to 0.81 for heart rate and from 0.39 to 0.86 for power output. For the non-anchor group, they were generally higher: 0.86 to 0.93 and 0.81 to 0.95 for heart rate and power output, respectively. The 95% limits of agreement indicated no marked differences between the two groups in the amount of bias and within-subject error. The results suggest that among these adolescents, the implementation of an experiential anchoring protocol had no positive effect on the reproducibility of their exercise regulation during prescribed cycling.

The ‘Ubiquitous Apostle of International Play’, Wilberforce Vaughan Eaves: The Forgotten Internationalist of Lawn Tennis

Abstract In the context of sustained imperial dominance during the late Victorian era, foreigners perceived British playing styles, methods and approaches to lawn tennis as ‘blueprints’ for aspiring players. Those seeking to learn the game were largely dependent on observing skilled performers, however before the mid-1890s, most of the best British players declined to venture to Australasia and America, perceiving the opposition as inferior and their championships unworthy of their participation. Moreover, while British-trained coaching-professionals – widely considered the world’s best – offered instruction in a small number of clubs, they also rarely ventured outside of Europe. Alongside these barriers, the parochial and ethnocentric Lawn Tennis Association was less than proactive in their approaches to fostering international relations. One man, however, Dr Wilberforce Vaughan Eaves, did more for the internationalization of the sport than anyone else during this period, travelling extensively in America, South Africa and Australasia, demonstrating his skills, offering instruction and advising officials. Consequently, he helped develop the sport’s international character, laying the foundations for the Davis Cup, helping to foster Anglo-Australasian and Anglo-American relations, and hastening the development of foreign players, particularly in Australasia. This paper assesses the notable contributions of a player, coach and diplomat who has been largely ignored.

The ‘ghosts’ of lawn tennis past: exploring the forgotten lives of early working-class coaching-professionals

ABSTRACT This article examines the lives of late-nineteenth and early-twentieth-century lawn tennis coaching-professionals, notably Tom Burke, Harry Cowdrey, Charles Haggett and George Kerr. These men, considered equally if not more gifted than the first-ranked amateur players of the period, have received scant attention or recognition, either as ‘expert’ players or for their role as coaches/instructors within the ‘amateur’ game. Ostensibly, these working-class boys/men sought employment in clubs, as ball-boys, groundskeepers, stringers and instructors, but, being immediately classified as ‘professionals’, were subsequently marginalised within clubs and barred from amateur competitions. Few outside of the club environs encountered them, few observed or learned of their skills, and fewer still reported their exploits. While many of the top amateur players of the period recognised the need for coaching-professionals, the British Lawn Tennis Association (LTA) was intransigent. They staunchly refused to sanction professional competitions in Britain, fearing they would provide a pathway away from amateurism, and propel the amateur to seek remuneration from their tennis. Coaching-professionals had little choice but to remain as ‘servants’ within their clubs, confined by the rigid class system and unyielding amateur ethos. Hitherto largely ignored within lawn tennis historiography, these men are the ‘ghosts’ of lawn tennis past.

A time-motion analysis of Paralympic football for athletes with cerebral palsy

To investigate the soccer match-play work of players with cerebral palsy, 40 elite players were monitored for cardiovascular and locomotive demands of tournament match play. Using global positioning satellite and heart rate monitors, total distance travelled, distance travelled at high intensity and very high intensity (m); frequency of high intensity and very high intensity activity; heart rate. Disability classes C5/6, C7 and C8 were compared. The results showed C8 players covered the greatest distance. Frequency, contribution and maximum speed of high intensity and very high intensity activity was greater in C8. There was a progressive decline in distances covered in all classes across match quarters. C8 spent more time above 85% HRmax. No differences were observed between C5/6 and C7 classes. In conclusion, C8 players most notably perform best in very high intensity activity associated with game-defining moments. C5/6 and C7 players performed equitably. This study is the first to provide an insight for practitioners and coaches interested in the work rates in soccer for athletes with cerebral palsy.