Song-mao Chiu

Photochemical destruction of the Bcl-2 oncoprotein during photodynamic therapy with the phthalocyanine photosensitizer Pc 4

Photodynamic therapy (PDT), utilizing a photosensitizer and visible light, causes localized oxidative damage. With the mitochondrial photosensitizer Pcu20094, PDT induces apoptosis, yet its molecular targets are not known. Here, the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 is shown to be highly sensitive to PDT, as judged on Western blots by the disappearance of anti-Bcl-2-reactive material from the position of the native 26u2009kDa protein. The loss of Bcl-2 was PDT dose dependent and was observed for both endogenous and overexpressed Bcl-2 in several cell lines, immediately after PDT, and with chilled cells. It was accompanied by a trace of a 23-kDa cleavage product as well as high-molecular weight products that may result from photochemical crosslinking. PDT-induced Bcl-2 loss occurred in MCF-7 cells that do not express caspase-3 or in the presence of protease inhibitors, but was prevented, along with the induction of apoptosis, by the singlet oxygen scavenger L-histidine. Loss of FLAG-Bcl-2 was observed with both anti-FLAG and anti-Bcl-2 antibodies, indicating loss of native protein rather than simple BCL-2-epitope destruction. Photochemical damage was not observed in Bcl-xL, Bax, Bad, the voltage-dependent anion channel, or the adenine nucleotide translocator. Therefore, Bcl-2 is one target of PDT with Pcu20094, and PDT damage to Bcl-2 contributes to its efficient induction of apoptosis.

Bax is essential for mitochondrion-mediated apoptosis but not for cell death caused by photodynamic therapy

The role of Bax in the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria and the induction of apoptosis has been demonstrated in many systems. Using immunocytochemical staining, we observed that photodynamic therapy (PDT) with the photosensitiser Pc 4 induced Bax translocation from the cytosol to mitochondria, and the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria as early signalling for the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis in human breast cancer MCF-7c3 cells. To test the role of Bax in apoptosis, MCF-7c3 cells were treated with Bax antisense oligonucleotides, which resulted in as much as a 50% inhibition of PDT-induced apoptosis. In the second approach, Bax-negative human prostate cancer DU-145 cells were studied. Following PDT, the hallmarks of apoptosis, including the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, caspase activation, and chromatin condensation and fragmentation, were completely blocked in these cells. Restoration of Bax expression in DU-145 cells restored apoptosis, indicating that the resistance of DU-145 cells to PDT-induced apoptosis is due to the lack of Bax rather than to another defect in the apoptotic machinery. However, despite the inhibition of apoptosis, the Bax-negative DU-145 cells were as photosensitive as Bax-replete MCF-7c3 cells, as determined by clonogenic assay. Thus, for Pc 4-PDT, the commitment to cell death occurs prior to Bax activation.

Gamma radiation as a probe of chromatin structure: damage to and repair of active chromatin in the metaphase chromosome.

Cobalt-60 gamma radiation has been employed as a means of preferentially damaging actively transcribing chromatin within interphase and metaphase Chinese hamster V79-379 lung fibroblasts. The single-strand size distribution and break frequency of bulk 3H-labeled DNA have been compared to those same parameters for active sequences, i.e., sequences complementary to 125I-labeled poly(A+)RNA. The results show that (a) sequences active during interphase are more sensitive than inactive sequences to single-strand break formation by gamma radiation even when the chromatin is condensed in metaphase, (b) repair of strand breaks in the bulk DNA is slower in metaphase than in interphase cells, but (c) during metaphase, repair is faster in active sequences than in the bulk DNA. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that chromatin structure can be probed within intact cells by a method which circumvents isolation of nuclei or chromatin and the use of exogenous nucleases.

Nuclear matrix proteins are crosslinked to transcriptionally active gene sequences by ionizing radiation.

Unirradiated, exponentially growing Chinese hamster cells contain a low level (less than 5%) of their DNA firmly bound to protein, as measured by a filter-binding assay. That fraction of DNA is highly enriched in sequences which hybridize to poly(A+)RNA or ribosomal RNA. After 60 Gy gamma irradiation, the additional crosslinked DNA is also enriched in transcriptionally active sequences compared to bulk DNA, while DNA crosslinked by uv radiation has a frequency of active sequences which is no higher than the bulk DNA. DNA crosslinked to protein by gamma radiation but not by uv is largely released during a 4-h postirradiation incubation. The DNA which remains bound to protein during that period becomes depleted in active sequences; this is followed by an apparent restoration of the active gene-enriched protein complex found in unirradiated cells. When nuclear matrix-associated DNA was isolated free of the majority (loop) DNA, an enrichment for active DNA sequences was found in the matrix-associated DNA, and the frequency of DNA-protein crosslinks was found to be 10- to 16-fold greater in the matrix fraction. Gel electrophoretic analysis of the crosslinking proteins identifies them as subset of proteins of the nuclear matrix. These data are consistent with known properties of the nuclear matrix and suggest that chromatin structure plays an important role in the formation and repair of gamma-radiation-induced DNA lesions.

Nuclear Structure and the Microdistribution of Radiation Damage in DNA

Evidence for the roles of proteins and metal ions in the microheterogeneity of DNA damage is reviewed. Decondensation of chromatin in hypotonic buffers markedly sensitizes the DNA to radiation, while treatment of nuclei with hypertonic buffers strips the DNA of histones and other nuclear proteins and enhances the radiosensitivity of the DNA with respect to double-strand break (dsb) formation. Addition of the radical scavenger DMSO reduces the yield of strand breaks, but dehistonized chromatin remains approximately 2.5 times more sensitive to radiation than does native chromatin at 0.1 M DMSO. DNA-protein crosslink (DPC) formation is relatively unaffected by the removal of the majority of histones from chromatin. Most DPC form at or near the nuclear matrix, and matrix is stabilized and radiosensitized by Cu++. To elucidate the role of Cu++, the induction of dsb and DPC by gamma-radiation has been compared with that by hydroxyl radical from Fe(++)-EDTA, or Cu++ catalysed Fenton reactions. Data comparing the size of DNA fragments produced, the effect of expanding or dehistonizing chromatin, and the effects of radical scavengers suggest that gamma-radiation and Fe(++)-EDTA produce dsb at open chromatin sites, whereas Cu(++)-generated dsb are similar to radiation-induced DPC in their location at the nuclear matrix. Both metal ions appeared to produce damage by site-specific generation of hydroxyl radicals. The nuclear matrix, the proteinaceous skeleton which anchors chromosomal loops and provides sites for DNA replication and transcription, binds metal ions and matrix-attachment DNA regions (MARs) consisting of 300 + bp of AT-rich DNA. The interaction of cloned MARs with isolated nuclear matrices has been found to be hypersensitive to crosslinking upon gamma-irradiation, in comparison with associations formed by similarly sized DNA fragments lacking MAR sequences. Thus, the non-random distribution of radiation damage is partially explained by the protection of DNA afforded by histones and chromatin structure and partially by the hypersensitivity of DNA-nuclear matrix associations.

Induction of DNA Damage in γ-irradiated Nuclei Stripped of Nuclear Protein Classes: Differential Modulation of Double-strand Break and DNA—protein Crosslink Formation

The influence of chromatin proteins on the induction of DNA double-strand breaks (dsb) and DNA-protein crosslinks (dpc) by gamma-radiation was investigated. Low molecular weight non-histone proteins and classes of histones were extracted with increasing concentrations of NaCl, whereas nuclear matrix proteins were not extractable even by 2.0 M NaCl. The yield of dsb increased with progressive removal of proteins from chromatin. Whilst removal of low molecular weight non-histone proteins and histone H1 resulted in small increases in the production of dsb, removal of histones H2A/H2B, all histones, or all proteins led to 18.4, 46.4 and 55.5-fold increases in the yield of dsb, respectively, relative to irradiated cells. Therefore, both histones and non-histone proteins contribute to the radioprotection of DNA, core histones being the major radio-protectors. In contrast, depletion of chromatin proteins caused little or no effect on the induction of dpc until the chromatin was extracted with > or = 1.4 M NaCl. However, our studies indicated no direct, quantitative correlation between the removal of histones and the induction of dpc. The data support our previous conclusion that nuclear matrix protein rather than the majority of the histones are the predominant substrates for dpc production, although the involvement of a subset of tightly bound histones (H3 and H4) has not been excluded. This finding demonstrates that chromatin proteins can differentially modify the yield of two types of radiation-induced DNA lesions.

Photodynamic therapy-induced death of HCT 116 cells: Apoptosis with or without Bax expression

Cell death following photodynamic therapy (PDT) with the photosensitizer Pc 4 involves the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis. To evaluate the importance of Bax in apoptosis after PDT, we compared the PDT responses of Bax-proficient (Bax+/−) and Bax knock-out (BaxKO) HCT116 human colon cancer cells. PDT induced a slow apoptotic process in HCT Bax+/− cells following a long delay in the activation of Bax and release of cytochrome c from mitochondria. Although cytochrome c was not released from mitochondria following PDT in BaxKO cells, an alternative mechanism of caspase-dependent apoptosis with extensive chromatin and DNA degradation was found in these cells. This alternative process was less efficient and slower than the normal apoptotic process observed in Bax+/− cells. Early events upon PDT, such as the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, photodamage to Bcl-2, and activation of p38 MAP kinase, were observed in both HCT116 cell lines. In spite of differences in the efficiency and mode of apoptosis induced by PDT in the Bax+/− and BaxKO cells, they were found to be equally sensitive to killing by PDT, as determined by loss of clonogenicity. Thus, for Pc 4-PDT, the commitment to cell death occurs prior to and independent of Bax activation, but the process of cellular disassembly differs in Bax-expressing vs. non-expressing cells.

DNA-Protein Cross-Links: New Insights into their Formation and Repair in Irradiated Mammalian Cells

The production of strong binding between DNA and protein by radiations and chemicals has been known for many years. DNA-protein cross-links (DPCs) were first recognized as a distinct lesion in ultraviolet light (UV)-irradiated bacteria by Smith1 and by Alexander and Moroson.2 The importance of DPCs for cellular lethality was clearly demonstrated in E. coli.3 Smith has reviewed various aspects of this work on several occasions.4–6

The role of DNA damage and repair in the function of eukaryotic genes: Radiation-induced single-strand breaks and their rejoining in chromosomal and extrachromosomal ribosomal DNA of Tetrahymena

The production and rejoining of single-strand breaks (SSB) in chromosomal DNA and extrachromosomal ribosomal DNA (rDNA) were investigated after sublethal doses of ..gamma.. radiation to exponentially growing Tetrahymena. Hydrogen-3-labeled total nuclear DNA isolated from either control or irradiated cells was heat denatured and electrophoresed in agarose gels containing formaldehyde. Ribosomal DNA was identified by hybridization to (/sup 32/P)rRNA after transferring the DNA from the gels to nitrocellulose strips. It was found that (a) approximately 0.68 SSB is produced in each strand of rDNA exposed to 40 krad; (b) greater than 80% of SSB were rejoined within the first 20 min after irradiation in both chromosomal and rDNA; and (c) the rejoining process in both chromosomal and rDNA proceeded in the presence of inhibitors of protein synthesis, RNA synthesis, or oxidative metabolism. While the majority of SSB induced by 40 krad is rejoined within 20 min after irradiation, the resumption of rRNA synthesis does not occur until 30 min thereafter; it is concluded that the restoration of the normal size of the rDNA template is probably necessary but not sufficient for the resumption of rRNA synthesis.

Formation and Repair of DNA-Protein Crosslinks in Newly Replicated DNA

The production and removal of gamma-radiation-induced DNA-protein crosslinks (DPC) in nuclear matrix-associated newly replicated DNA were examined, as well as the relationship of DPC to DNA replication. In unirradiated, exponentially growing Chinese hamster V79 cells, DNA pulse labeled with [3H]thymidine was observed to be bound preferentially to protein. The pulse-labeled DNA subsequently became dissociated from protein. After a 30- to 60-min chase period, the level of labeled DNA in DPC was reduced to the same level as for bulk DNA. The radiation dose response for the formation of DPC was similar in newly replicated DNA that had been chased for various times and in mature chromatin DNA. Labeled DNA, in the DPC formed after 60 Gy, was rapidly removed from protein during the postirradiation incubation period. However, no recovery of DNA synthesis was observed, even after the majority of DPC were released. Thus either DPC are not the sole cause of the inhibition of DNA synthesis or their removal is not sufficient for DNA synthesis to resume.