Sonya SooHoo

Age before beauty: An exploration of body image in African-American and Caucasian adult women.

Research on body image emphasizes risks for eating disorders and typically involves young, Caucasian women. Few studies examine body image beyond the college years and there appears to be a disregard for the mature woman, as if self-acceptance of ones body is part of the aging process. Historically, it has been assumed that race is a protective factor against body dissatisfaction due to the perceived larger body ideal for women of color. Drawing upon interviews with Caucasian and African-American women from 20 to 80 years of age, this article explores body image across the lifespan. This analysis revealed that African-American and Caucasian women of all ages engage in private self-monitoring of their bodies and use strategies such as exercise, controlling food intake and cosmetic surgery to try and change the shape of their bodies. Therefore, it is evident that women across age and race categories are vulnerable to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors. Regardless of race, even mature women recognize and respond to societal expectations of beauty and femininity.

Body image in belly dance: integrating alternative norms into collective identity

This research presents survey data from a sample of 103 belly dancers in Salt Lake City, Utah, addressing issues of body image and gender identity. While research on various forms of dance has emphasized unhealthy body image influences, belly dance offers a counter-example, indicating broad and inclusive body image norms, lack of pressure for body image conformity, and high levels of body satisfaction among dancers. Data also indicate that those norms are linked to more generalized challenges to gender roles and structures. Explanations for the maintenance of alternative collective norms focus on two institutional influences: processes of socialization to collective values, and the free space provided by a gender segregated activity.

Gender Stereotyping and the Influence of Race in Sport among Adolescents.

One of the most dreaded insults in sports is, “You throw like a girl,” because it epitomizes our society’s gender logic about physiological differences between men and women. Although physiological differences between the sexes exist, people label these abilities and behaviors as masculine or feminine as a result of social and cultural expectations. Thus, gender equates to the socially learned expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female (Andersen & Taylor, 2006). Gender socialization begins early when, traditionally, girls are instructed to be passive, submissive, and nurturing, whereas boys are taught to be aggressive, active, and autonomous (Birns, 1976). Gill (2000, 2002) emphasized that gender should be considered within the wider context of social diversity that includes analysis of other ideologies (e.g., race, social class). The sports environment provides a unique microcosm for the examination of both gender and race socialization (Coakley, 2007). Therefore, the purpose our study was to examine both the influence of gender and race among high school youth in classifying sport activities as masculine, feminine, or gender neutral. Engel (1994) and others (e.g., Birrell, 2000; Butler, 1990; Halberstam, 2001; hooks, 1990) have acknowledged that while sports are not naturally gendered, patriarchal societies impose definitions and expectations of masculinity and femininity upon individuals at an early age. Early research on women in sports was mostly atheoretical, focusing on psychological factors such as gender roles, traits, and role conflict (Birrell, 2000). Then, emerging feminist scholars (such as Birrell, Hall, Theberge, and Oglesby) began to recognize that sports were in fact gender-based activities, with value and power associated with masculine traits (Birrell, 2000). Critical feminist theorists argue that ideological changes are needed before gender equity in sports and society can exist. In every culture, men and women play different roles within the social organization or institution. Sport is a male-dominant institution that promotes traditional gender roles and advances male hegemony (Eitzen, 2005). Hegemony is the condition in which groups, in this case, men in sports, wield authority over other groups through imposition, manipulation, and consent. For centuries, sports have been a prominent hegemonic social institution (Kane & Disch, 1993). The growing number of female athletes and recognition of women’s sports challenge the hegemonic ideology of women as inferior to men (Sabo & Messner, 2001). These factors serve to determine the masculine and feminine images of behaviors that are appropriate to men and women (Metheny, 1965). Thus, we label certain sports as masculine or feminine based on “gender appropriateness” (Ostrow, Jones, and Spiker, 1981), which is determined by how much a particular sport requires female athletes to accept or challenge traditional definitions of femininity (Metheny, 1965). Consequently, sports participation is based on whether the activity characteristics are considered socially acceptable for one’s gender (Guillet, Sarrazon, & Fontayne, 2000). Despite challenges to male hegemony, stereotypes of “acceptable” and “unacceptable” sports by gender persist (Riemer & Visio, 2003). Gender Stereotyping and the Influence of Race in Sport Among Adolescents

“Full of Ourselves PLUS”: Lessons Learned when Implementing an Eating Disorder and Obesity Prevention Program

Obesity among adolescents is a significant problem in the United States. Community-based programs have focused on obesity or eating disorders without considering the overlap in these health problems (American Dietetic Association, 2006). Therefore, the purpose of this article is to introduce an integrative eating disorder and obesity prevention program (i.e., Eat and Live Well: Utz et al., 2008 and Full of Ourselves: Steiner-Adair & Sjostrom, 2006) called “Full of Ourselves PLUS” (FOO+). We describe the lessons learned when combining the curricula from evidence-based obesity and eating disorder prevention programs and share practical advice for promoting psychological and physical health to adolescent females.