Soon Ang

Cultural Intelligence: Its Measurement and Effects on Cultural Judgment and Decision Making, Cultural Adaptation and Task Performance

We enhance the theoretical precision of cultural intelligence (CQ: capability to function effectively in culturally diverse settings) by developing and testing a model that posits differential relationships between the four CQ dimensions (metacognitive, cognitive, motivational and behavioural) and three intercultural effectiveness outcomes (cultural judgment and decision making, cultural adaptation and task performance in culturally diverse settings). Before testing the model, we describe development and cross-validation (N = 1,360) of the multidimensional cultural intelligence scale (CQS) across samples, time and country. We then describe three substantive studies (N = 794) in field and educational development settings across two national contexts, the USA and Singapore. The results demonstrate a consistent pattern of relationships where metacognitive CQ and cognitive CQ predicted cultural judgment and decision making; motivational CQ and behavioural CQ predicted cultural adaptation; and metacognitive CQ and behavioural CQ predicted task performance. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of our model and findings.

Differences between tight and loose cultures: A 33-nation study

The differences across cultures in the enforcement of conformity may reflect their specific histories. With data from 33 nations, we illustrate the differences between cultures that are tight (have many strong norms and a low tolerance of deviant behavior) versus loose (have weak social norms and a high tolerance of deviant behavior). Tightness-looseness is part of a complex, loosely integrated multilevel system that comprises distal ecological and historical threats (e.g., high population density, resource scarcity, a history of territorial conflict, and disease and environmental threats), broad versus narrow socialization in societal institutions (e.g., autocracy, media regulations), the strength of everyday recurring situations, and micro-level psychological affordances (e.g., prevention self-guides, high regulatory strength, need for structure). This research advances knowledge that can foster cross-cultural understanding in a world of increasing global interdependence and has implications for modeling cultural change.

Conceptualizing Employee Silence and Employee Voice as Multidimensional Constructs

Employees often have ideas, information, and opinions for constructive ways to improve work and work organizations. Sometimes these employees exercise voice and express their ideas, information, and opinions; and other times they engage in silence and withhold their ideas, information, and opinions. On the surface, expressing and withholding behaviours might appear to be polar opposites because silence implies not speaking while voice implies speaking up on important issues and problems in organizations. Challenging this simplistic notion, this paper presents a conceptual framework suggesting that employee silence and voice are best conceptualized as separate, multidimensional constructs. Based on employee motives, we differentiate three types of silence (Acquiescent Silence, Defensive Silence, and ProSocial Silence) and three parallel types of voice (Acquiescent Voice, Defensive Voice, and ProSocial Voice) where withholding important information is not simply the absence of voice. Building on this conceptual framework, we further propose that silence and voice have differential consequences to employees in work organizations. Based on fundamental differences in the overt behavioural cues provided by silence and voice, we present a series of propositions predicting that silence is more ambiguous than voice, observers are more likely to misattribute employee motives for silence than for voice, and misattributions for motives behind silence will lead to more incongruent consequences (both positive and negative) for employees (than for voice). We conclude by discussing implications for future research and for managers. Copyright Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2003.

IT Outsourcing Success: A Psychological Contract Perspective

Information technology (IT) outsourcing success requires careful management of customer-supplier relationships. However, there are few published studies on the ongoing relationships, and most of these adopt a customer perspective, de-emphasizing suppliers. In this study, we look at both customer and supplier perspectives, by means of the psychological contract of customer and supplier project managers. We apply the concept of psychological contract to perceived mutual obligations, and to how such fulfillment of obligations can predict success. Our research questions are (1) What are the critical customer-supplier obligations in an IT outsourcing relationship? and (2) What is the impact of fulfilling these obligations on success?We use a sequential, qualitative-quantitative approach to develop and test our model. In the qualitative study, we probe the nature of customer-supplier obligations using in-depth interviews. Content analysis of interview transcripts show that both customers and suppliers identify six obligations that are critical to success. Customers perceive supplier obligations to be accurate project scoping, clear authority structures, taking charge, effective human capital management, effective knowledge transfer, and effective interorganizational teams. Suppliers perceive customer obligations as clear specifications, prompt payment, close project monitoring, dedicated project staffing, knowledge sharing, and project ownership. In the second quantitative study, we assess the impact of fulfilling these obligations on success through a field study of 370 managers. Results show that fulfilled obligations predict success over and above the effects of contract type, duration, and size.

Personality correlates of the four-factor model of cultural intelligence

We examine relationships between Big Five personality and the four-factor model of cultural intelligence (CQ)—metacognitive CQ, cognitive CQ, motivational CQ, and behavioral CQ. Hierarchical regression analyses conducted on data from 338 business undergraduates—after controlling for age, gender, and years of experience in interacting with people from other cultures—show significant links between (a) conscientiousness and metacognitive CQ; (b) agreeableness and emotional stability with behavioral CQ; (c) extra version with cognitive, motivational, and behavioral CQ; and (d) openness with all four factors of CQ. The intriguing finding of this study is that openness was the only Big Five that was significantly related to all four aspects of CQ. This differs from prior research on openness that found few significant relationships. Our results show that openness to experience is a crucial personality characteristic that is related to a person’s capability to function effectively in diverse cultural settings (CQ).

Turnover of information technology professionals: a narrative review, meta-analytic structural equation modeling, and model development

This study combines a narrative review with meta-analytic techniques to yield important insights about the existing research on turnover of information technology professionals. Our narrative review of 33 studies shows that the 43 antecedents to turnover intentions of IT professionals could be mapped onto March and Simons (1958) distal-proximal turnover framework. Our meta-analytic structural equation modeling shows that proximal constructs of job satisfaction (reflecting the lack of desire to move) and perceived job alternatives (reflecting ease of movement) partially mediate the relationships between the more distal individual attributes, job-related and perceived organizational factors, and IT turnover intentions. Building on the findings from our review, we propose a new theoretical model of IT turnover that presents propositions for future research to address existing gaps in the IT literature.

Employment outsourcing in information systems

growing trend. I N recent years, information systems (IS) outsourcing has become so pervasive it can no longer be ignored. An important question is why firms choose to outsource IS work. This question has been considered from a number of perspectives. Lacity and Hirschheim [14], for example, showed how the dynamics of internal politics led to IS outsourcing. Loh and Venkatraman [15] suggested that the outsourcing behavior of a prominent blue-chip company, such as Eastman Kodak, can lead to imitative behavior throughout the IS community. In contrast, our study examines the reasons for IS outsourcing from a somewhat different perspective----that of labor market economics. From this perspective, outsourcing is a result of how firms respond to the costs and benefits of employment arrangements with their IS workers. In the classic economic view of labor markets, workers move freely and frequently between jobs to take advantage of better employment opportunities. According to Doeringer and Piore [8], the traditional long-term employment arrangement replaced the open labor market because it afforded principals (employers) greater control and influence over agents (their employees). More recently, however, firms have been moving away from the traditional, long-term employment arrangement (insourcing) to relatively shorter-term, market-mediated arrangements (outsourcing). Outsourcing reflects the increasing trend toward “taking the workers back out” [19], in which organizations alter the work relationship with their employees by reducing the duration of employment and their degree of administrative control over workers. In IS outsourcing, taking the workers back out can occur in many ways. A firm can either contract directly with an IS professional for his or her services or contract indirectly with an employee leasing company, a consulting firm, or an IS service provider. Such practices can benefit both the firm and the IS worker. Although the Eastman Kodak outsourcing arrangement represents total IS outsourcing and has become a popular practice in industry, firms can also choose to selectively outsource for particular IS skills or jobs. But why do firms choose to selectively or completely outsource IS? From a labor market perspective, outsourcing is the response of firms to the costs and disadvantages of the traditional permanent work arrangement that arise from dynamic changes in technology and the environment. Due to the increasingly rapid evolution of information technology (IT), IS work is characterized by skills deterioration and specific skills shortages [16, 25]. Thus, a firm’s ability to find and acquire the necessary IS skills is paramount. Under these circumstances, relying on retraining a permanent work force may be cost prohibitive. In addition, because IT evolves so rapidly, by the time a firm invests in and trains its IS staff on a certain technology, that technology may be obsolete. There are indications that firms face increasing turbulence in the environment. As firms become inteEmployment Outsourcing

Cultural Intelligence and Offshore Outsourcing Success: A Framework of Firm‐Level Intercultural Capability*

This article discusses the importance of firm-level cultural intelligence in the context of international business ventures such as offshoring. We identify the recent movement toward global delivery models in offshoring ventures as the strategic imperative for offshoring partners to acquire and develop firm-level cultural intelligence. Drawing on Earley and Angs (2003) conceptualization of cultural intelligence and the resource based view of the firm, we develop a conceptual framework of firm-level cultural intelligence. The framework comprises three dimensions of intercultural capabilities of the firm: managerial, competitive, and structural. We propose items to measure these three dimensions and discuss theoretical and managerial implications.

Human Capital and Institutional Determinants of Information Technology Compensation: Modeling Multilevel and Cross-Level Interactions

Compensation is critical in attracting and retaining information technology (IT) professionals. However, there has been very little research on IT compensation. Juxtaposing theories of compensation that focus on human capital endowments and labor market segmentation, we hypothesize multilevel and cross-level determinants of compensation. We use hierarchical linear modeling to analyze archival salary data for 1,576 IT professionals across 39 institutions. Results indicate that compensation is directly determined by human capital endowments of education and experience. Institutional differentials do not directly drive compensation, but instead moderate the relationship of human capital endowments to compensation. Large institutions pay more than small institutions to IT professionals with more education, while small institutions pay more than large institutions to IT professionals with less education. Not-for-profit institutions pay more than for-profits to IT professionals with more or IT-specific education. Further, information-intensive institutions pay more than non information-intensive institutions to IT professionals with more or IT-specific education. We interpret these results in the context of institutional rigidity, core competencies, and labor shortages in the IT labor market.

When Subordinates Become IT Contractors: Persistent Managerial Expectations in IT Outsourcing

This paper investigates the persistence of managerial expectations in an IT outsourcing context where the traditional relationship between supervisor and subordinate changes to one of client-manager and contractor. A mixed-method approach was used, in which a qualitative methodology preceded a large-scale quantitative survey. Data were collected from 147 survivors of a government IT organization which had undergone IT outsourcing in the previous year. Findings show that role overload, the presence of strong ties between manager and contractor, and the lack of prior outsourcing experience increased the persistence of managerial expectations. In turn, persistence of expectations had a distinct influence on managerial perceptions of contractor performance.