Sophie Hautot

Lower crustal earthquakes near the Ethiopian rift induced by magmatic processes

Lower crustal earthquakes are commonly observed in continental rifts at depths where temperatures should be too high for brittle failure to occur. Here we present accurately located earthquakes in central Ethiopia, covering an incipient oceanic plate boundary in the Main Ethiopian Rift. Seismicity is evaluated using the combination of exceptionally well resolved seismic structure of the crust and upper mantle, electromagnetic properties of the crust, rock geochemistry, and geological data. The combined data sets provide evidence that lower crustal earthquakes are focused in mafic lower crust containing pockets of the largest fraction of partial melt. The pattern of seismicity and distribution of crustal melt also correlates closely with presence of partial melt in the upper mantle, suggesting lower crustal earthquakes are induced by ongoing crustal modification through magma emplacement that is driven by partial melting of the mantle. Our results show that magmatic processes control not only the distribution of shallow seismicity and volcanic activity along the axis of the rift valley but also anomalous earthquakes in the lower crust away from these zones of localized strain.

Electric potential variations associated with yearly lake level variations

Electric potential variations have been recorded from November 1995 to February 1996 and continuously since October 1996 at 14 measurement points on a one km wide ridge separating two lakes in the French Alps. The levels of the lakes vary by several tens of meters on a yearly cycle, inducing stress variations and fluid percolation. At one point, unambiguous variations as large as 120 mV are observed over a year, linearly correlated with the levels of the lakes with a magnitude of 2 mV per meter of water level change. This particular measurement point lies at the edge of a SP anomaly, which supports the presence of a localized zone of ground water flow forced by the lake level, suggesting an electrokinetic mechanism. The observed correlation implies a ζ‐potential of the order of ‐8 mV for a 60 Ωm electrolyte, in agreement with laboratory measurements.

Deep structure of the Baringo Rift Basin (central Kenya) from three‐dimensional magnetotelluric imaging: Implications for rift evolution

Three-dimensional modeling of data from 31 vertical electrical and 24 magnetotelluric soundings collected in the Baringo-Bogoria Basin (central Kenya Rift Valley) shows a thick succession of well-defined tectonostratigraphic units beneath the Recent deposits of the Marigat-Loboi Plain. They include from top to bottom, a sedimentary basin, ∼1.5 km thick, controlled by N-S and N140° structural trends, and a thick homogeneous resistive layer related to the bottom of the basin, overlying a conductive structure, which cannot be clearly correlated with the Proterozoic basement. It is suggested that the resistive layer correlates with the mid-Miocene plateau-type flood phonolites which flowed over the early Kenya Rift during a major volcanic activity period. The conductive structure overlain by these lava flows could be a sedimentary basin developed during the initial phase of rifting, during the Oligocene-Miocene. The absence of a significant gravity low associated with this deep basin suggests a zone of dense intrusion deeper than 5–10 km, not discernible with the magnetotelluric data but required to explain the gravity anomalies. The recognition of a deeply buried sedimentary succession lying between 4 and 8 km beneath the lower Miocene volcanic series of the Baringo valley would provide new insights into the regional volcano-sedimentary stratigraphie succession and the rift development of the Kerio and Baringo Basins.

Fluid flow near reservoir lakes inferred from the spatial and temporal analysis of the electric potential

Electric self-potential (SP) variations have been monitored continuously from 1995 to 1998 at 14 points on a ridge separating the Roselend and La Gittaz reservoir lakes in the French Alps. The lakes have level variations of at least 50 m over yearly cycles. Seasonal variations of SP associated with lake-level variations are observed on five points of the array. For three points located on the banks of the lakes, a positive correlation to the lake-level variations is observed with a maximal amplitude of about 180 mV, corresponding to an average response of 2.4 mV per meter of water. For two points located on the bottom of each lake, the correlation is negative, with a maximal magnitude of about −50 mV, corresponding to an average response of −1.1 mV per meter of water. Two independent temporary electrical arrays located on the banks of each lake confirm these measurements and allow a better spatial characterization of the sources associated with the observed SP variations. In particular, near the Roselend lake, the electrical response to lake-level variations is increasing for decreasing altitude. The measured SP variations are proposed to result from the electrokinetic coupling associated with a vertical groundwater flow connecting a constant pore pressure source to the bottom of the lakes. Numerical modeling indicates that the spatial variation of the response and the nonlinear response observed at one point can be explained by leakage currents in the conductive lake water. The values of the streaming potential coefficient (SPC), measured in the laboratory with crushed rock samples from the site, range from 14 to 50 mV/0.1 MPa for an electrolyte resistivity of 40 Ω m and are compatible, to first order, with the magnitude of the observed seasonal SP variations. A detailed quantitative electrokinetic modeling is currently limited mainly by the poor knowledge on the contribution of electrical leakage currents and the local variability of the SPC. This experiment indicates that spatial and temporal variations of the electric potential are promising tools to characterize and monitor shallow groundwater flow and provide practical data for the investigation of groundwater flow associated with volcanic or tectonic activity.

The electrical resistivity structure of the crust beneath the northern Main Ethiopian Rift

Abstract 18 audio-frequency magnetotelluric (MT) sites were occupied along a profile across the northern Main Ethiopian Rift. The profile covered the central portion of the Ethiopia Afar Geoscientific Lithospheric Experiment (EAGLE) line 1 along which also a number of broadband seismic receivers were deployed, a controlled-source seismic survey was shot, and gravity data were collected. Here, a two-dimensional model of the MT data is presented and interpreted, and compared with the results of other methods. Shallow structure correlates well with geologically mapped Quaternary to Jurassic age rocks. Within it, a small, shallow conducting lens, at less than 1 km depth, beneath the Boset volcano may represent a magma body. The 100 Θm resistivity contour delineates the seismically inferred upper crust beneath the northern plateau. The Boset magmatic segment is characterized by conductive material extending to at least lower crustal depths. It has high velocity and density in the upper to mid-crust and upper mantle. Thus, all three results suggest a mafic intrusion at depth, with the MT model indicating that it contains partial melt. There is a second, slightly deeper, more conductive body in the lower crust beneath the northern plateau, tentatively interpreted as another zone containing partial melt. The crust is much more resistive beneath the southern plateau, and has no resistivity contrast between the upper and lower crust. The inferred geoelectric strike direction on the plateaus is approximately parallel to the trend of the rift border faults, but rotates northwards slightly within the rift, matching the orientation of the en echelon magmatic segments within it. This follows the change in orientation of the shear wave splitting fast direction.

Groundwater electromagnetic imaging in complex geological and topographical regions: A case study of a tectonic boundary in the French Alps

Very‐low‐frequency (VLF), audiomagnetotelluric (AMT), and water geochemistry surveys were performed on the Sur‐Fretes Ridge in the French Alps to evaluate the groundwater circulation system within the ridge. At this site, temporal variations of the electric field have been observed in association with water‐level variations of neighboring artificial lakes. The Sur‐Fretes Ridge is 1 km wide and trends east–west. Water samples were collected at 52 points distributed throughout the area. VLF soundings were carried out along three parallel east–west profiles, and 7 AMT soundings were carried out along an east–west profile on the top of the ridge. This site is characterized by a rugged topography of the ridge where geological and topographic trends are almost perpendicular, making the structure fully three dimensional. We constructed a 2‐D resistivity model of the ridge from 2‐D and 3‐D analyses of the VLF and AMT data, associating geology and topography models. When combined with the water chemistry data, a m...

A new petrological and geophysical investigation of the present-day plumbing system of Mount Vesuvius

A model of the electrical resistivity of Mt. Vesuvius has been elaborated to investigate the present structure of the volcanic edifice. The model is based on electrical conductivity measurements in the laboratory, on geophysical information, in particular, magnetotelluric (MT) data, and on petrological and geochemical constraints. Both 1-D and 3-D simulations explored the effect of depth, volume and resistivity of either one or two reservoirs in the structure. For each configuration tested, modeled MT transfer functions were compared to field transfer functions from field magnetotelluric studies. The field electrical data are reproduced with a shallow and very conductive layer (~0.5km depth, 1.2km thick, 5ohm.m resistive) that most likely corresponds to a saline brine present beneath the volcano. Our results are also compatible with the presence of cooling magma batches at shallow depths ( ~100ohm.m. According to a petro-physical conductivity model, such a resistivity value is in agreement either with a low-temperature, crystal-rich magma chamber or with a small quantity of hotter magma interconnected in the resistive surrounding carbonates. However, the low quality of MT field data at long periods prevent from placing strong constraints on a potential deep magma reservoir. A comparison with seismic velocity values tends to support the second hypothesis. Our findings would be consistent with a deep structure (8-10km depth) made of a tephriphonolitic magma at 1000°C, containing 3.5wt%H2O, 30vol.% crystals, and interconnected in carbonates in proportions ~45% melt - 55% carbonates.

Magma imaged magnetotellurically beneath an active and an inactive magmatic segment in Afar, Ethiopia

Abstract This paper presents broadband magnetotelluric data collected along profiles over two magmatic segments comprising part of the subaerial Red Sea arm of the Afar triple junction. One of these segments has been active since late 2005 and the other segment is currently inactive. After robust processing and galvanic distortion analysis, we found that the data passed the two-dimensional subsurface resistivity modelling criteria. Profiles across the segments had well-defined geoelectrical strike directions parallel to the local rift axes. Data from the northern end of the active segment had a more ambiguous strike oblique to the profile and rift axes, but the direction did not have a severe impact on the deduced model. All three models displayed prominent zones of low resistivity, interpreted as arising from magma and partial melt. Petrological information has been used to constrain the resistivity of the parent melt and hence to estimate the melt fractions from the bulk resistivity. The total amount of melt estimated beneath the profile crossing the active segment (c. 500 km3) is approximately an order of magnitude greater than that beneath the profile crossing the currently inactive rift. This implies that the availability of magma is at least one factor affecting whether a rift segment is active.

Crustal Structure of Active Deformation Zones in Africa: Implications for Global Crustal Processes

The Cenozoic East African rift (EAR), Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL), and Atlas Mountains formed on the slow‐moving African continent, which last experienced orogeny during the Pan‐African. We synthesize primarily geophysical data to evaluate the role of magmatism in shaping Africas crust. In young magmatic rift zones, melt and volatiles migrate from the asthenosphere to gas‐rich magma reservoirs at the Moho, altering crustal composition and reducing strength. Within the southernmost Eastern rift, the crust comprises ~20% new magmatic material ponded in the lower crust and intruded as sills and dikes at shallower depths. In the Main Ethiopian Rift, intrusions comprise 30% of the crust below axial zones of dike‐dominated extension. In the incipient rupture zones of the Afar rift, magma intrusions fed from crustal magma chambers beneath segment centers create new columns of mafic crust, as along slow‐spreading ridges. Our comparisons suggest that transitional crust, including seaward dipping sequences, is created as progressively smaller screens of continental crust are heated and weakened by magma intrusion into 15–20 km thick crust. In the 30 Ma Recent CVL, which lacks a hot spot age progression, extensional forces are small, inhibiting the creation and rise of magma into the crust. In the Atlas orogen, localized magmatism follows the strike of the Atlas Mountains from the Canary Islands hot spot toward the Alboran Sea. CVL and Atlas magmatism has had minimal impact on crustal structure. Our syntheses show that magma and volatiles are migrating from the asthenosphere through the plates, modifying rheology, and contributing significantly to global carbon and water fluxes.

Three‐dimensional magnetotelluric inversion of large data sets: Case study of Pasfield Lake (Saskatchewan) for mineral exploration

We present a case study of three-dimensional inversion of a large set of transient audio magnetotelluric (~500 sites) data acquired in the Athabasca Basin of northern Saskatchewan as part of an uranium exploration program at Pasfield Lake along seven lines. Previous studies revealed a complex structural setting near the line extremities with a large conductive uplifted block in central portions of the lines. Previous 2D and 2.5D inversion of the AMT data have been carried out along the lines to capture the most salient shallow geological features. Here, we applied a full 3D inversion to recover the deep part of the geological structures. The preliminary inversion results reveal shallow features in better agreement with 3D potential field data than previously obtained.