Sören Scholvin

South Africa's energy policy: constrained by nature and path dependency

Pursuing a ‘natural-social scientific’ approach, I argue that constraints and opportunities provided by nature play a major role in South Africas energy policy. Presently, the countrys coal-dominated energy sector stands at a critical juncture. In order to overcome electricity shortages and provide a basis for economic growth, coal-fired power generation will have to expand. Regional cooperation on gas reserves and hydropower, a nuclear build-up programme at home and renewable energy constitute alternative strategies for South Africa to achieve energy security. I bring together natural conditions and social factors, reasoning that energy policy is largely determined by path-dependent developments. Path-dependent developments begin at critical junctures, where natural conditions and social factors jointly induce a course for the future that is extremely difficult to alter at a later point of time. Natural constraints and opportunities have received little attention in existing research but being aware of them helps us to better understand the present state of South Africas energy sector and to assess the feasibility of envisaged strategies.

Emerging Non‐OECD Countries: Global Shifts in Power And Geopolitical Regionalization

Various concepts ascribe key roles to emerging non-OECD countries in regional and global politics. This paper highlights how these concepts hint not only at a shift of global power but also at geopolitical regionalization: according to the theory of hegemonic stability, regional powers (a subcategory of emerging non-OECD countries) are key actors in overcoming international anarchy and establishing cooperative and stable relations within their regions. Because of the different impacts of different regional powers, which are categorized in this paper using typologies of hegemony, the logic of international relations varies from one region to another. From a theoretical point of view, this means that international relations theories have to make region-specific adaptations.

From rejection to acceptance: the conditions of regional contestation and followership to post-apartheid South Africa

ABSTRACT The relations of post-apartheid South Africa with its neighboring states in Southern Africa have been marked by contestation and followership to the regional hegemon, shifting from the former to the latter at the beginning of this millennium. Analyzing the most important cases of regional security policy from the 1990s and 2000s, I show that four conditions explain whether the other regional states contest or follow South Africa: a demand for South African leadership, South Africas general vision for distribution of power and guiding principles in international relations, the compatibility of policy-specific interests, and the interpretation of the past behavior of the hegemon.

The gateway to Africa? Geography and South Africa's role as an economic hinge joint between Africa and the world

The authors argue that South Africas role as an economic gateway for various African countries primarily depends on geography, that is, on naturally given and man-made structures in geographical space. Hence, they first examine South Africas location and physio-geographical conditions in Southern Africa in order to show important factors that affect the scope of the South African gateway. Second, they shed light on regional transport infrastructure, revealing how South Africa interlinks its neighbouring countries globally. Thirdly, regional economic interaction is analysed with regard to structural features of South Africas economy that make it prone to being a gateway. The authors recognise that the impact of all these factors is influenced by strategic decisions taken by politicians and businesspeople. The outlook of the paper therefore addresses policies of the South African government that are often problematic for the countrys gateway role. Potential challengers and their competitive advantages are presented, too.

Contestation in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Foreign Policies of Angola, Kenya and Nigeria vis-à-vis South Africa

The second-most powerful states in regional hierarchies—or “secondary powers”—can be expected to contest against regional hegemons. This chapter assesses the power that secondary powers in sub-Saharan Africa may wield vis-a-vis South Africa. It concentrates on “unintended contestation,” meaning policies that undermine regional hegemony but are not designed for this purpose. The chapter shows that Angola’s foreign policy is marked by a mix of unintended and intended contestation. The latter results from Angola’s increasing economic influence in some regional countries. Kenya might contest against South Africa in economic affairs but has not done so yet. The Nigerian–South African relations are characterized by incidents of diplomatic friction, especially concerning security policy and xenophobia in South Africa and unintended contestation in economics terms.

Power politics by economic means: Geoeconomics as an analytical approach and foreign policy practice

ABSTRACT Geoeconomics has become highly relevant for foreign policy practices and national security strategies, wherefore it has also started to receive increasing attention from academics. Unfortunately, there is no widely shared definition of geoeconomics. The term is often only used as a catchword that generates an audience for policy-oriented, semi-scientific outlets. This article addresses this weakness of the state of the art. The authors suggest that geoeconomics, as a foreign policy strategy, refers to the application of economic means of power by states so as to realize strategic objectives. As an analytical framework, geoeconomics relates to international relations realism. Yet it transcends international relationship realism, as it is focused on geographical features that are inherent in foreign policy and international relations.

Geographical conditions and political outcomes

ABSTRACT Geopolitical research is frequently pictured as a dead end. This article aims to revitalize geopolitics, reflecting both on the critique of the subject and the strengths that have marked it for more than a century. It is argued that geographical conditions constitute a set of opportunities and constraints, a structure that is independent of agency. General patterns and long-term processes can be explained well by this structure. Understanding specific phenomena that occur in international relations requires taking into consideration non-geographical factors, though. All those committed to geopolitics should hence concentrate on the interplay of geographical conditions and non-geographical factors in causal mechanisms that shape international relations.