Stef Aupers

Contesting epistemic authority: Conspiracy theories on the boundaries of science.

Conspiracy theories are immensely popular today, yet in the social sciences they are often dismissed as “irrational,” “bad science,” or “religious belief.” In this study, we take a cultural sociological approach and argue that this persistent disqualification is a form of “boundary work” that obscures rather than clarifies how and why conspiracy theorists challenge the epistemic authority of science. Based on a qualitative study of the Dutch conspiracy milieu, we distinguish three critiques that are motivated by encounters with scientific experts in everyday life: the alleged dogmatism of modern science, the intimate relation of scientific knowledge production with vested interests, and the exclusion of lay knowledge by scientific experts forming a global “power elite.” Given their critique that resonates with social scientific understandings of science, it is concluded that conspiracy theorists compete with (social) scientists in complex battles for epistemic authority in a broader field of knowledge contestation.

Christian-Muslim couples in the Veneto region, northeastern Italy: Dealing with religious pluralism in everyday family life

Based on a three-year ethnographic study of processes of identity construction in 15 Christian-Muslim couples in Italy, this paper focuses on religion and analyses how partners rely on various strategies in order to deal with religious differences within the context of family life. Does religious pluralism emerge as a problem actually perceived by those couples? Chosen as a paradigmatic case study of ‘mixed’ couples, the analysis shows how partners, united by a common purpose to minimize their religious differences, often overcome religious pluralism. Four strategies to accomplish this are distinguished: ‘renunciation’, ‘closeting’, ‘conversion’ and ‘spiritualization’. It is concluded that what is defined in public debate as ‘mixed’ – in terms of religious differences – is not always experienced as such within the family context.

Bibles and BioShock : Affording Religious Discussion on Video Game Forums

This study sets forth to analyze and categorize attitudes shown by communities of players on internet forums, debating religious worldviews in games such as BioShock and Assassins Creed. It does so in light of the theo- and technological affordances that shape these discussions through the platforms of digital games and internet forums. Is the predominance of religion in games, as noted by other scholars, actually a topic of discussion for players themselves? And if so, which games afford discussion? What attitudes are displayed? And what are the motivations behind these attitudes? A multi-method approach is presented, analyzing 91 discussions and 20 interviews; rooted in extensive familiarization with the relevant games. Research outcomes include a typology of user attitudes, part of which actively seek out enchantment in the face of secularization. These are theorized in the context of two affordances: the theological affordances of some interactive systems to invite play with religious worldviews in a secularizing world; and the technological affordances of the internet forum as a platform that affords but shapes forum discourse.

‘Gods in World of Warcraft exist’: Religious reflexivity and the quest for meaning in online computer games

In ‘secular’ Western societies, religious topics permeate media texts of books, films, series and games and such texts even inform several religious-spiritual movements. Critically expanding on theories about ‘fiction-based religion’, ‘invented religion’ or ‘hyper-real religion’, this article studies if, how and why players of the massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) World of Warcraft reflect on religious narratives in the game world and what influence it has on their personal perspective on religion. Based on interviews with 22 international players, three forms of ‘religious reflexivity’ are distinguished: (1) religious performance, an acting out of offline experiences with religion through online role-playing; (2) religious relativism, a shift from dogmatic atheism to a tolerant attitude towards religion; and (3) religious quests, an increased interest in religion and active ‘bricolage’ of online religion and official religion to create personal systems of meaning. Online games, it is concluded, can serve as laboratories where youngsters freely experiment with religion outside the established churches.

Fantasy, Conspiracy and the Romantic Legacy: Max Weber and . the Spirit of Contemporary Popular Culture

The relation between modernity and cultural discontents of anomie and alienation is a central element in the works of Weber, Durkheim, Marx and their successors. Under modern conditions, the two are likely to occur simultaneously, because of modernitys tendency to erode the meaningful nomos of the past (anomie) and replace it with overbearing and therefore alienating institutional systems. This chapter argues that such analyses of modern life are no longer confined to the works of sociologists. It then argues that these narratives are especially present in todays popular culture, in particular in the genres of fantasy and conspiracy theories. Author discusses the theoretical implications of this observation, in particular for Max Webers classical analysis of the discontents of modern culture. He explores the possibility that fantasy culture and conspiracy culture may serve as repertoires by means of which hyper-real spiritualities are constructed that offer solace for modern problems of meaning. Keywords:conspiracy theories; fantasy; hyper-real spiritualities; Max Weber; modern culture; popular culture; romantic legacy

Rational Enchantments: Conspiracy Theory between Secular Scepticism and Spiritual Salvation

In the social sciences, conspiracy theory is often morally debunked as pathological, irrational and dangerous and, essentially, considered a form of ‘religious superstition’. Arguing that this simplistic labelling of conspiracy theory as ‘religious belief’ is primarily a form of ‘boundary work’ to legitimate the epistemic authority of the social sciences, this chapter studies the hybrid character of contemporary conspiracy theory based on the self-understanding of its advocates. The analysis shows that conspiracy culture is an unstable, multi-faced phenomenon that is situated at the intersection of three discourses: secular scepticism, popular sociology, and spiritual salvation. Mixing up secular science and spiritual salvation and simultaneously assessing how the world ‘is’ and how it ‘ought’ to be, may be a horror to academics; for conspiracy theorists it is having the best of both worlds.

Playing the Other: Role-playing religion in videogames

In contemporary ‘post-secular society’, videogames like Assassin’s Creed, BioShock Infinite or World of Warcraft are suffused with religious elements. Departing from a critique on studies perceiving such in-game representations as discriminatory forms of religious Othering, the main research question of this article is: how does role-playing the (non-)religious Other in games affect the worldview of players? The study is based on a qualitative analysis of in-depth interviews held with 20 international players from different (non-)religious backgrounds. Rather than seeing religion in games as representations of ‘Othering’, the analysis demonstrates that players from different (non-)religious beliefs take on different worldviews while role-playing the (non-)religious Other. Atheists relativize their own position, opening up to the logic of religious worldviews; Christians, Hindus and Muslims, in turn, compare traditions and may draw conclusions about the similarities underlying different world religions. Other players ‘slip into a secular mindset’, gradually turning towards the position of a ‘religious none’. It is concluded that playing the religious Other in videogames provides the opportunity to suspend (non-)religious worldviews and empathize with the (non-)religious Other. The relevance of these findings is related to broader sociological debates about ‘post-secular society’ and the alleged increase of religious fundamentalism, conflict and mutual Othering.