Stella Ting-Toomey

Facework competence in intercultural conflict: an updated face-negotiation theory

Abstract Face influences conflict behavior, because, in any conflict situation, conflict parties have to consider protecting self-interest conflict goals and\or honoring or attacking another person’s conflict goals. Conflict is an ideal forum for face-threatening and face-saving behaviors. The objective of this article is three-fold: first, to provide an update on face-negotiation theory ( Ting-Toomey 1988 ); second, to introduce a facework competence model for intercultural conflict training; and third, to discuss several major training and research issues in using the face-negotiation theory and its companion model, the facework competence model.

Face Concerns in Interpersonal Conflict A Cross-Cultural Empirical Test of the Face Negotiation Theory

This study sought to test the underlying assumption of the face-negotiation theory that face is an explanatory mechanism for culture’s influence on conflict behavior. A questionnaire was administered to 768 participants in 4 national cultures (China, Germany, Japan, and the United States) asking them to describe interpersonal conflict. The major findings of this study are as follows: (a) cultural individualism-collectivism had direct and indirect effects on conflict styles, (b) independent self-construal related positively with self-face and interdependent self-construal related positively with other-face, (c) self-face related positively with dominating conflict styles and other-face related positively with avoiding and integrating styles, and (d) face accounted for all of the total variance explained (100% of 19% total explained) in dominating, most of the total variance explained in integrating (70% of 20% total explained), and some of the total variance explained in avoiding (38% of 21% total explained) when considering face concerns, cultural individualismcollectivism, and self-construals.

The influence of individualism-collectivism and self-monitoring on conflict styles

Abstract The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of cultural variability and self-monitoring on conflict communication styles. Specifically, the cultural variability dimension of individualism-collectivism was used as the key theoretical dimension in explaining conflict style differences between Taiwan and the United States. In addition, the personality factor of self-monitoring was used as a covariate to analyze possible conflict style differences of individuals. Multivariate analysis of covariance was employed to examine the relationship between the independent variables and the set of conflict dependent variables. Consistent with predictions, Taiwan respondents used an obliging style and an avoiding style more than their United States counterparts. Inconsistent with the predictions, the Taiwanese respondents used integrating and compromising styles more than the United States respondents. Finally, self-monitoring was found to be related to the dominating style of conflict.

Face and facework in conflict: a cross-cultural comparison of China, Germany, Japan, and the United States

The purpose of the current study was to investigate face and facework during conflicts across four national cultures: China, Germany, Japan, and the United States. A questionnaire was administered to 768 participants in the 4 national cultures, in their respective languages, to measure 3 face concerns and 11 facework behaviors. The major findings of the current study are as follows: (a) self-construals had the strongest effects on face concerns and facework with independence positively associated with self-face and dominating facework and interdependence positively associated with other- and mutual-face and integrating and avoiding facework; (b) power distance had small, positive effects on all three face concerns and avoiding and dominating facework; (c) individualistic, small-power distance cultures had less other-face concern and avoiding facework, and more dominating facework than collectivistic, large-power distance cultures; (d) Germans had more self- and mutual-face concerns and used defending more than U.S. Americans; (e) Chinese had more self-face concern and involved a third party more than Japanese; and (f) relational closeness and status only had small effects on face concerns and facework behavior.

Ethnic/cultural identity salience and conflict styles in four US ethnic groups

This study examined the influence of ethnic background, ethnic identity, and cultural identity on conflict styles among African Americans, Asian Americans, European Americans, and Latino(a) Americans. Panethnic factor analysis yielded four dimensions of ethnic identity: ethnic belonging, fringe, intergroup interaction, and assimilation. A secondorder factor analysis yielded two clear identity dimensions: ethnic identity salience and cultural identity salience. In addition, panethnic factor analysis yielded seven conflict management styles: integrating, compromising, dominating, avoiding, neglecting, emotional expression, and third party. Some of the major findings of the study are: (1) African Americans have a stronger ethnic identity and a weaker cultural identity than the other ethnic groups; (2) European Americans have a weaker ethnic identity than the other groups; (3) Latino(a) Americans and Asian Americans use avoiding and third party conflict styles more than African Americans, and, Asian Americans use avoiding conflict style more than European Americans; (4) Individuals with a strong cultural identity (i.e., identifying with the larger US culture) use integrating, compromising, and emotionally expressive conflict styles more than individuals with a weak cultural identity; (5) Individuals with a strong ethnic identity (i.e., identifying with their ethnic memberships) use integrating

Facework in Japan and the United States

Abstract The present study examined the relationship between cultural variability and facework strategies. Responses to the individualism-collectivism items, strategy items, and face concern items were factor analyzed. Data were collected from university students in Japan and the United States. Results indicated that there are two dimensions regarding individualism-collectivism —a low versus high collectivism continuum and a low versus high individualism continuum. Japanese respondents reported more collectivistic tendencies and more individualistic tendencies than U.S. respondents. North Americans reported using more antisocial, self-presentation, self-attribution, and hint strategies than Japanese respondents. Japanese respondents reported using more indirect facework strategies than North American respondents. Males reported using more antisocial, order, and self-presentation strategies than females. Finally, the covariates of social face concern and pride/status influenced the antisocial factor. Pride/status influenced the hint, order, self-presentation, and indirect factors. This study serves as the first step in developing a typology that can be used to compare facework in various cultures.

Self‐construal types and conflict management styles

The purpose of the current study was to explore the effects of ethnic background, sex, and self‐construal types on conflict styles among African Americans, Asian Americans, European Americans, and Latina(o) Americans. Self‐construal, or self‐image, is composed of two aspects: an independent self and an interdependent self (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, 1994). Four self‐construal types result from a combination of the two components of self: biconstrual, independent, interdependent, and ambivalent. It was predicted and found that self‐construal provides a better explanation of conflict styles than ethnicity or sex. The participants (N = 662) completed a questionnaire that investigated their self‐construals and conflict styles in acquaintance conflicts. The major findings of the study were as follows: (a) biconstruals, independents, and interdependents use integrating and compromising more than ambivalents (as expected); (b) biconstruals use emotional expression more than ambivalents (as expected); (c) biconstruals use dominating more than interdependents and ambivalents (as expected); (d) interdependents and ambivalents use third‐party help more than biconstruals and independents; and (e) ambivalents use neglect more than biconstruals, independents, and interdependents; and (0 males use dominating more than females.

Intimacy expressions in three cultures: France, Japan, and the United States

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine cultural variability influence on intimacy expressions of love commitment, disclosure maintenance, ambivalence, and conflict in France, Japan, and the United States. The MANOVA analyses revealed significant main effects for culture type (France. Japan, and the United States) and for gender type (male versus female) on the intimacy expression patterns. No significant interaction effect was found for culture and gender. Respondents in France and the United States reported a significantly higher degree of love commitment and disclosure maintenance than the Japanese respondents. In addition, the U.S. respondents reported a higher degree of relational ambivalence than their Japanese counterparts. Further, the French respondents reported the lowest degree of conflict expression in comparison to the Japanese group and the United States group. In terms of gender differences, females reported a significantly higher degree of love commitment, disclosure maintenance and interpersonal conflict expressions than their male counterparts. The findings and the implications of the study along culture and gender lines are discussed.

A typology of facework behaviors in conflicts with best friends and relative strangers

The purpose of the current study was to create a typology of facework behaviors in interpersonal conflicts between best friends and relative strangers for Japanese and U.S. participants. In phase I, 286 participants responded to open‐ended questions about the manner in which they negotiated face during a conflict with either a best friend or a relative stranger. The responses of a sample of these respondents ‐16 Japanese, 16 members of ethnic minority groups in the U.S., and 20 European Americans — were categorized using a Q‐sort technique. Fourteen categories of facework behaviors were derived. Validation procedures for the typology were carried out via a cluster analysis resulting in 13 unique clusters: (a) aggression, (b) apologize, (c) avoid, (d) compromise, (e) consider the other, (f) defend self (g) express feelings, (h) give in, (i) involve a third party, (j) pretend, (k) private discussion, (l) remain calm, and (m) talk about the problem. In phase II, 95 Japanese and 61 U.S. Americans rated the appropriateness and effectiveness of behaviors from each of the categories. The findings illustrate that the typology captures a wide range of appropriateness and effectiveness rating which further demonstrates the validity of the typology.

Cross-cultural interpersonal communication

Cross-Cultural Interpersonal Communication - Stella Ting-Toomey An Introduction PART ONE: CROSS-CULTURAL INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION A Cultural Perspective on the Morality of Beneficence and Interpersonal Responsibility - Joan G Miller The Concept of Yuan and Chinese Interpersonal Relationships - Hui-Ching Chang and G Richard Holt Nicknaming Practices in Families - Shoshana Blum-Kulka and Tamar Katriel A Cross-Cultural Perspective Uncertainty Reduction in Acquaintance Relationships in Ghana and the United States - Judith A Sanders, Richard L Wiseman and S Irene Matz Stability of Romantic Relationships in China and the United States - Ge Gao Self-Disclosure and Reciprocity in South Korean and US Male Dyads - Myong Jin Won-Doornink Conflict Competence Within African, Mexican, and Anglo American Friendships - Mary Jane Collier The Emergence of Interpersonal Behavior - John Adamopoulos Diachronic and Cross-Cultural Process in the Evolution of Intimacy Unexplored Barriers - Anna Banks and Stephen P Banks The Role of Translation in Interpersonal Communication PART TWO: INTERCULTURAL-INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION Social Information for Uncertainty Reduction During Initial Interactions - Hyun O Lee and Franklin J Boster Influence of Language and Similarity on Initial Intercultural Attraction - Hyun S Kim Themes in Opposite Sex, Japanese-North American Relationships - William B Gudykunst et al Intercultural Communication Competence - Young Yun Kim A Systems-Theoretic View