William B. Gudykunst

Cultural Variability in Communication An Introduction

My purpose in this article is to introduce studying cultural variability in communication in general and this special issue in particular. I begin by examining the nature of culture. Next, I review the emic and etic approaches to studying communication and culture with a focus on the major dimensions of cultural variability used to explain communication across cultures. Following this, I examine individual-level processes that mediate the influence of culture on communication. I conclude by overviewing the articles included in this issue and discussing how they are consistent with current trends in the study of cultural variability in communication.

The influence of individualism‐collectivism on perceptions of communication in ingroup and outgroup relationships

Triandis (1986) refined conceptualization of individualism‐collectivism suggests that this dimension of culture influences individuals’ behavior with members of their ingroups and outgroups. Drawing on his analysis, predictions were made regarding the influence of individualism‐collectivism on the degree of personalization, synchronization, and difficulty that occurs in ingroup and outgroup relationships. The predictions were tested using data on perceptions of communication in relationships with strangers (outgroup) and classmates (ingroup) in Japan, Korea, and the United States. The results indicated that individualism‐collectivism was related systematically to perceptions of communication in ingroup relationships, but its relationship to perceptions of communication in outgroup relationships was more complicated. To explain the link between individualism‐collectivism and perceptions of personalization, synchronization and difficulty in communication with members of outgroups, it appears that it is nec...

Individual and cultural influences on uncertainty reduction

This study examined the scope of Berger and Calabreses (1975) uncertainty reduction theory of initial interaction. Multivariate analysis of covariance was employed to examine the influence of attitude similarity (similar vs. dissimilar), cultural similarity (intracultural vs. intercultural communication), culture (Japan vs. the United States), and self‐monitoring (covariate) on intent to interrogate, intent to self‐disclose, intent to display nonverbal affiliative expressiveness, attraction, and attributional confidence. Results indicate that each of the independent variables influences the set of dependent variables. The findings support Halls (1976) high‐low context culture distinction and prior research on self‐monitoring, as well as supporting and beginning to identify boundary conditions for uncertainty reduction theory.

Uncertainty, anxiety, and adaptation☆

Abstract Gudykunst and Hammer generated a communication-based theory to explain intercultural adaptation. Two assumptions of the theory are empirically testable: Assumption 3—the reduction of cognitive uncertainty and affective anxiety exert independent influences on adaptation; and Assumption 4—the reduction of uncertainty and anxiety are necessary and sufficient conditions for adaptation. The purpose of the present paper is to present a preliminary test of these two assumptions by examining a portion of Gudykunst and Hammers theory. Three alternative models involving the effect of social contact, cultural similarity, and cultural knowledge on uncertainty, anxiety, and adaptation were tested. The data support Gudykunst and Hammers assumptions; that is, the effect of social contact, cultural similarity, and cultural knowledge on adaptation is mediated through the reduction of uncertainty and anxiety, and uncertainty and anxiety reduction are independent. The implications of these findings for intercultural training are outlined.

Communication in everyday interpersonal and intergroup encounters

Abstract Communication that occurs in everyday encounters influences the development and maintenance of relationships. Many theorists have called for paying greater attention to everyday communication behavior. To date, this call has not been addressed in research comparing interpersonal and intergroup communication. The purpose of this study was to compare communication in everyday interpersonal and intergroup encounters. Two sets of data were collected, one involving a comparison of intracultural and intercultural encounters, and one involving a comparison of intraethnic and interethnic encounters. In each set of data, respondents completed diaries containing measures of the nature of the encounter, the quality of communication, their satisfaction with the communication, the amount of uncertainty and anxiety, the importance of their social and personal identities, and their expectations after their encounters. The results indicate that both the type of encounter (interpersonal, intergroup) and the type of relationship (stranger, acquaintance, friend) influence communication in everyday encounters. The specific patterns that emerge are consistent with previous research and current theories of interpersonal and intergroup communication.

Cultural Differences in Self-Consciousness and Self-Monitoring

The present study examines self-consciousness (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) and self-monitoring (Snyder, 1974; Snyder & Gangestad, 1986) across cultures. Data from samples in Japan, Korea, and the United States were collected. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the three-dimensional model of the self-consciousness scale and the 18-item one-factor self-monitoring scale provided the best fit to the data from all three cultures. Multivariate analysis of variance revealed that culture affected the three dimensions of self-consciousness, with significant differences emerging between the United States and Japanese samples on public self-consciousness, between Japan and Korea on private self-consciousness, and between the United States and both Japan and Korea on social anxiety. In addition, the U.S. sample reported significantly higher levels of self-monitoring than both the Japanese and Korean samples. These results are consistent with the hypotheses generated from Hofstedes (1980) theory of cultural differentiation.

Intergroup communication over time

Abstract The purpose of the present studies was to examine anxiety/uncertainty management processes in dyadic intergroup encounters over four interaction periods. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected in the first study. The quantitative results revealed significant differences across time for anxiety, uncertainty, quality, satisfaction, expectations, and perceived typicality. There were no significant differences across time for personal and social identities. Correlations among the variables indicated that decreases in uncertainty and anxiety are associated with perceived quality of communication. The qualitative data revealed three themes: (1) similarities were perceived that allowed respondents to reduce their uncertainty, (2) self-disclosure allowed the respondents to get to know each other, and (3) respondents changed from basing their communication on their social identities to basing their communication on their personal identities. The results of the second study revealed consistent changes across time for positive expectations, uncertainty, anxiety, quality of communication, and perceived similarity. There also were changes across time for social identity, personal identity, perceived effectiveness, and perceived typicality, but the changes were not consistent across all points in time. Perceived similarity, positive expectations, perceived quality of communication, and perceived effectiveness correlated negatively with uncertainty and anxiety across all four periods of time.

Developmental themes in Japanese-North American interpersonal relationships

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine relational themes, patterns of discourse which focus on partners interpretations of their interaction, in intercultural relationships. More specifically, two research questions were addressed: What themes emerge in intercultural relationships? and How do specific themes relate to intercultural relationship development? Partners in low, moderate, and high intimacy, Japanese-North American, female-female dyads were interviewed individually in their native languages. An interpretive analysis of the participants accounts of their relationships revealed four themes: communication competence, similarity, involvement, and turning points. Each theme had three subthemes. The presence, form, and interconnections among the relational themes varied across intimacy levels. The subthemes of cultural similarity, language/cultural knowledge, and accommodation emerged more frequently in these Japanese-North American relationships than would be expected in relationships between members of the same culture.