Stephanie Steinmetz

Field of Study and Gender Segregation in European Labour Markets

This article explores the role of field of study in channelling tertiary graduates into gender-appropriate occupations and the extent to which this process varies across countries. Previous research has demonstrated that such cross-country differences can be attributed to the nature of the welfare regime. However, less attention has been devoted to the potential impact of educational institutions and labour market systems. Using the European Union Labour Force Survey 2004 for 17 EU Member States, results of the multilevel analysis reveal that cross-national variation in occupational gender segregation must be seen in the context of institutional variation in education and labour market systems. The representation of women in higher education and the labour force, the gender pay gap and the provision of childcare explain a significant proportion of cross-national variation in occupational segregation by gender.

Highly educated but in the wrong field?: Educational specialisation and labour market risks of men and women in Spain and Germany

ABSTRACT This paper investigates the impact of gender differences in tertiary education, i.e., field of study and level of tertiary degree, on two selected labour market risks: unemployment and low-status jobs. Using Labour Force Survey data from the year 2000, results of the logistic regression models and non-linear decomposition analyses generally confirm our expectation that the field of study explains a sizable portion of the gender gap in unemployment and low-status jobs in both countries. However, the level of tertiary degree earned explains only part of the female disadvantage behind holding a low-status job in Spain. The analyses also show that compared to men, women with a degree in a predominantly male field of study seem to be systematically disadvantaged in both Germany and Spain, particularly with respect to unemployment. Overall, the analyses reveal that gender differentiation in tertiary education leads to similar outcomes in two very different institutional contexts.

Should I stay or should I go? The impact of working time and wages on retention in the health workforce.

BackgroundTurnover in the health workforce is a concern as it is costly and detrimental to organizational performance and quality of care. Most studies have focused on the influence of individual and organizational factors on an employee’s intention to quit. Inspired by the observation that providing care is based on the duration of practices, tasks and processes (issues of time) rather than exchange values (wages), this paper focuses on the influence of working-time characteristics and wages on an employee’s intention to stay.MethodsUsing data from the WageIndicator web survey (N = 5,323), three logistic regression models were used to estimate health care employee’s intention to stay for Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands. The first model includes working-time characteristics controlling for a set of sociodemographic variables, job categories, promotion and organization-related characteristics. The second model tests the impact of wage-related characteristics. The third model includes both working-time- and wage-related aspects.ResultsModel 1 reveals that working-time-related factors significantly affect intention to stay across all countries. In particular, working part-time hours, overtime and a long commuting time decrease the intention to stay with the same employer. The analysis also shows that job dissatisfaction is a strong predictor for the intention to leave, next to being a woman, being moderately or well educated, and being promoted in the current organization. In Model 2, wage-related characteristics demonstrate that employees with a low wage or low wage satisfaction are less likely to express an intention to stay. The effect of wage satisfaction is not surprising; it confirms that besides a high wage, wage satisfaction is essential. When considering all factors in Model 3, all effects remain significant, indicating that attention to working and commuting times can complement attention to wages and wage satisfaction to increase employees’ intention to stay. These findings hold for all three countries, for a variety of health occupations.ConclusionsWhen following a policy of wage increases, attention to the issues of working time—including overtime hours, working part-time, and commuting time—and wage satisfaction are suitable strategies in managing health workforce retention.Abstract in GermanHintergrundHohe Personalfluktuation und Kündigungsraten sind im Gesundheitswesen aufgrund ihres negativen Einflusses auf die organisatorische Leistung sowie die Qualität der Pflege in zunehmendem Maße ein ernstes Problem. In diesem Zusammenhang haben Studien zur Personalfluktuation vor allem den Einfluss von individuellen und organisatorischen Faktoren untersucht. Da jedoch innerhalb des Gesundheitswesens Zeitkomponenten (z.B. Dauer der für verschiedene Aufgaben verfügbaren Zeit) eine noch wichtigere Rolle spielen als die Entlohnung jedes einzelnen Arbeitsschritts, konzentriert sich der vorliegende Artikel vor allem auf den Einfluss verschiedener Arbeitszeit- und Entlohnungsfaktoren auf die Absicht von Mitarbeitern, beim derzeitigen Arbeitgeber zu verbleiben.MethodeUnter Verwendung gepoolter belgischer, deutscher und niederländischer Stichproben (2006-2012) der kontinuierlichen, weltweiten und mehrsprachigen WageIndicator- Onlineumfrage (N = 5323) untersucht die Studie anhand von drei logistischen Regressionsmodellen die Absicht von Mitarbeitern, bei ihrem derzeitigen Arbeitgeber im Gesundheitswesen zu verbleiben. Das erste Modell analysiert unter Kontrolle von soziodemographischen sowie berufs- und organisationsbezogenen Eigenschaften den Einfluss verschiedener Arbeitszeitfaktoren auf die Verbleibeabsicht. Unter Berücksichtigung der gleichen Kontrollvariablen testet das zweite Modell hingegen die Auswirkungen lohnbezogener Eigenschaften auf die Absicht zu bleiben, während das dritte Modell letztlich Arbeitszeit- und Lohnaspekte kombiniert.ErgebnisseModell 1 zeigt, dass die arbeitszeitbezogenen Faktoren die Absicht, beim derzeitigen Arbeitgeber zu verbleiben, in allen drei Ländern signifikant beeinflussen. Insbesondere Teilzeitarbeit, Überstunden sowie eine lange Anfahrtszeit zum Arbeitsplatz verringern die Verbleibeabsicht. Die Analyse zeigt auch, dass neben Einflussfaktoren wie weibliches Geschlecht, mittlere bis hohe Bildung und kürzlich erfolgte Beförderung, vor allem Arbeitsunzufriedenheit ein starker Prädiktor für die Absicht ist, den Arbeitgeber zu verlassen. In Modell 2 zeigt sich, dass lohnbezogene Merkmale, wie z.B. ein niedriger Lohn oder höhere Lohnunzufriedenheit, die Verbleibewahrscheinlichkeit von Arbeitnehmern verringert. Der starke Lohn(un)zufriedenheitseffekt bestätigt dabei, dass nicht nur die Lohnhöhe sondern vor allem auch die subjektive Lohnzufriedenheit eine zentrale Rolle spielt. Unter Berücksichtigung aller Faktoren in Model 3 bleiben die oben genannten Effekte signifikant, was darauf hindeutet, dass Arbeitszeitfaktoren (u.a. auch Anfahrtszeiten) neben Lohnfaktoren einen wichtigen Beitrag zum Verständnis von Personalfluktuation im Gesundheitswesen leisten. Diese Ergebnisse gelten für alle drei untersuchten Länder und eine Vielzahl von Gesundheitsberufen.SchlussfolgerungenDie Analyse zeigt auf, dass in der politischen Diskussion neben Lohnerhöhungen vor allem auch Themen wie Arbeitszeit (einschließlich Überstunden, Teilzeit und Anfahrtszeit) sowie die subjektive Lohnzufriedenheit in den Vordergrund gerückt werden müssen. Diese Faktoren eröffnen alternative Strategien, um das Problem hoher Personalfluktuation im Gesundheitswesen anzupacken.Abstract in SpanishAntecedentesLa rotación de personal de salud es preocupante, ya que es costoso y perjudicial para el desempeño de la organización y la calidad de atención médica. La mayoría de los estudios se han centrado en los factores a nivel individual y de organización que influyen el renunciar el empleo. Inspirado por la observación de que la prestación de atención médica se basa en la duración de las prácticas, las tareas y procesos (cuestiones de tiempo) en lugar de los valores de cambio (salarios), este manuscrito se enfoca en la influencia de las características del tiempo de trabajo y los salarios en la intención de permanecer en el empleo.MétodosUtilizando datos de la encuesta por Internet del Indicador Salarial (N = 5,323), se estimaron tres modelos de regresión logística para determinar la intención del empleado de atención de la salud a permanecer en Bélgica, Alemania y Holanda. El primer modelo incluye características de tiempo de trabajo, mientras controla por un conjunto de variables sociodemográficas, categorías laborales, la promoción y diversas características relacionadas con la organización. El segundo modelo de prueba el impacto de las características relacionadas con los salarios. El tercer modelo incluye tanto el tiempo de trabajo como los aspectos relacionados con los salarios.ResultadosModelo 1 indica que los factores de trabajo relacionados con el tiempo afectan significativamente la intención de permanecer en el empleo a través de todos los países. Las horas de trabajo a tiempo parcial o tiempo extra y un tiempo largo de trayecto al trabajo disminuyen la intención de permanecer en el mismo empleo. El análisis también indica que la insatisfacción laboral es un fuerte predictor de la intención de renunciar el empleo, también el ser mujer, ser moderadamente o bien educada y el haber sido promovido dentro de la organización actual. En el Modelo 2, características relacionadas con los salarios demuestran que los empleados con un salario bajo o un bajo nivel de satisfacción sobre el salario son menos propensos a expresar la intención de quedarse. El efecto de la satisfacción salarial no es sorprendente; confirma que, además de un alto salario, la satisfacción salarial es importante. Al considerar todos los factores en el Modelo 3, todos los efectos siguen siendo significativos, que indica que el aumentar la intención de los empleados a quedarse requiere la atención al tiempo del trabajo y del trayecto al trabajo, además de la atención sobre los salarios y la satisfacción de salarios. Estas conclusiones son válidas para los tres países y a través de una variedad de profesiones de la salud.ConclusionesCuando se implementa una política de incrementar salarios para mejorar la satisfacción salarial, también se debe considerar otras estrategias para el manejo de la retención de personal de salud, como el de trabajar horas extras, trabajo a tiempo parcial y el tiempo del trayecto al trabajo.

Health workforce remuneration: comparing wage levels, ranking, and dispersion of 16 occupational groups in 20 countries

BackgroundThis article represents the first attempt to explore remuneration in Human Resources for Health (HRH), comparing wage levels, ranking and dispersion of 16 HRH occupational groups in 20 countries (Argentina, Belarus, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, the Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, India, Mexico, the Netherlands, Poland, Russian Federation, Republic of South Africa (RSA), Spain, Sweden, Ukraine, United Kingdom (UK), and United States of America (USA)). The main aim is to examine to what extent the wage rankings, standardized wage levels, and wage dispersion are similar between the 16 occupational groups and across the selected countries and what factors can be shown to be related to the differences that emerge.MethodThe pooled data from the continuous, worldwide, multilingual WageIndicator web survey between 2008 and 2011 (for selected HRH occupations, n=49,687) have been aggregated into a data file with median or mean remuneration values for 300 occupation/country cells. Hourly wages are expressed in standardized US Dollars (USD), all controlled for purchasing power parity (PPP) and indexed to 2011 levels.ResultsThe wage ranking of 16 HRH occupational groups is fairly similar across countries. Overall Medical Doctors have the highest and Personal Care Workers the lowest median wages. Wage levels of Nursing & Midwifery Professionals vary largely. Health Care Managers have lower earnings than Medical Doctors in all except six of the 20 countries. The largest wage differences are found for the Medical Doctors earning 20 times less in Ukraine than in the US, and the Personal Care Workers, who earn nine times less in the Ukraine than in the Netherlands. No support is found for the assumption that the ratio across the highest and lowest earning HRH occupations is similar between countries: it varies from 2.0 in Sweden to 9.7 in Brazil. Moreover, an increase in the percentage of women in an occupation has a large downward effect on its wage rank.ConclusionsThis article breaks new ground by investigating for the first time the wage levels, ranking, and dispersion of occupational groups in the HRH workforce across countries. The explorative findings illustrate that the assumption of similarity in cross-country wage ranking holds, but that wage dispersion and wage levels are not similar. These findings might contribute to the policies for health workforce composition and the planning of healthcare provisions.Abstract in SpanishAntecedentesEste artículo representa el primer intento de explorar la remuneración de los Recursos Humanos para la Salud (RHS), la comparación de los niveles salariales, clasificación, y dispersión de los 16 grupos de trabajo en 20 países (Argentina, Belarús, Bélgica, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, la República Checa, Finlandia, Alemania, India, México, los Países Bajos, Polonia, la Federación de Rusia, la República de Sudáfrica, España, Suecia, Ucrania, el Reino Unido, y los Estados Unidos de América (EEUU)). El objetivo principal es analizar en qué medida los rankings de salarios, niveles estandarizados de salarios, y la dispersión salarial es similar entre los 16 grupos de trabajo y en los países seleccionados y qué factores se puede demostrar relacionados con las diferencias que surjan.MétodosLos datos agrupados de la continua encuesta mundial, multilingüe WageIndicator por Internet entre 2008 y 2011 (para determinadas ocupaciones de RHS, n=49,687) se han agrupado en un archivo de datos con los valores de la remuneración promedio o media para 300 células de ocupación/país. Los salarios por hora se expresan en estandarizados dólares estadounidenses (USD), todos controlados por la paridad del poder adquisitivo (PPP) e indexados a los niveles de 2011.ResultadosEl ranking salarial de 16 grupos ocupacionales de RHS es bastante similar en todos los países. En general los médicos tienen los más altos y los trabajadores de atención personal los más bajos salarios medios. Los niveles salariales varían en gran medida para los profesionales de Enfermería y Partería. Los gerentes de salud tienen menores ingresos que los médicos en todos los países examinados excepto en seis. Las mayores diferencias salariales se encuentran entre los médicos, que ganan 20 veces menos en Ucrania que en los EEUU, y los trabajadores de cuidado personal, que ganan nueve veces menos en Ucrania que en los Países Bajos. No se ha encontrado apoyo a que exista la supuesta relación entre los índices de salarios más altos y más bajos de las profesiones RHS entre estos países, sino que varía de 2,0 a 9,7 en Suecia en Brasil. Además, cuando existe un alto porcentaje de mujeres en ciertas profesiones hay una baja en su rango salarial.ConclusionesEste artículo abre nuevas fronteras al investigar por primera vez los niveles salariales, la clasificación, y la dispersión de los grupos ocupacionales de la fuerza de trabajo SAR entre ciertos países. Los hallazgos exploratorios muestran que la hipótesis de la similitud en el ranking de salarios entre países se mantiene, son sólo la dispersión de los salarios y los niveles salariales que no son similares. Estos hallazgos podrían contribuir a las políticas para la composición del personal sanitario y a la planificación de las medidas de servicios de la salud.Abstract in germanHintergrundDieser Artikel stellt den ersten Versuch dar, einen Einblick in die Vergütung (Lohnniveau, -ranking und –verteilung) von 16 Berufsgruppen aus dem Gesundheitsbereich (HRH) in 20 Ländern (Argentinien, Belarus, Belgien, Brasilien, Chile, Kolumbien, Tschechien, Finnland, Deutschland, Indien, Mexiko, den Niederlanden, Polen, Russische Föderation, Republik Südafrika (RSA), Spanien, Schweden, Ukraine, Vereinigtes Königreich (UK), und Vereinigte Staaten von Amerika (USA)) zu erhalten. Hauptziel ist es, zu prüfen, inwieweit sich die 16 Berufsgruppen und ausgewählten Länder im Hinblick auf das standardisierte Lohnniveau, das Lohn-Ranking und die Lohnverteilung ähnlich sind, und welche Faktoren für die beobachteten Unterschiede verantwortlich gemacht werden können.MethodeDie gepoolten Daten der kontinuierlichen, weltweiten und mehrsprachigen WageIndicator- Onlineumfrage zwischen 2008 und 2011 (für ausgewählte HRH Berufe N = 49.687) wurden zu einer Datei aggregiert, die die Vergütung für 300 Beruf/Land-Zellen in Median- oder Mittelwert-Werten angibt. Die Stundenlöhne wurden in standardisierten US-Dollar (USD) unter Kontrolle der Kaufkraftparität (PPP) angegeben und sind auf dem Niveau von 2011 indexiert.ErgebnisseDie Analyse zeigt, dass das Lohnranking der16 HRH Berufsgruppen zwischen den Ländern vergleichbar ist. In allen Ländern haben Ärzte die höchste und persönliche Betreuungskräfte die niedrigsten mittleren Löhne. Es zeigt sich jedoch auch, dass große Länderunterschiede hinsichtlich des Lohnniveaus von professionellen Krankenpflegern und Geburtshelfern bestehen. Mit Ausnahme von 6 der 20 Länder erzielen Manager im Gesundheitswesen geringere Erträge als Ärzte. Die größten Lohnunterschiede sind für die Berufsgruppe der Ärzte zu beobachten: ukrainische Ärzte verdienen 20-Mal weniger als ihre US-amerikanischen Kollegen. Ein ähnliches Ergebnis zeigt sich auch für individuelle Pflegekräfte in der Ukraine, die 9-mal weniger verdienen als die gleiche Berufsgruppe in den Niederlanden. Die Analyse widerlegt die Annahme, dass das Verhältnis zwischen den höchsten und niedrigsten HRH-Berufen über die Länder hinweg vergleichbar ist: Der Wert variiert zwischen 2.0 in Schweden und 9.7 in Brasilien. Darüber hinaus zeigt sich,dass ein ansteigender Prozentsatz von Frauen zu einer starken Herabstufung im Lohnrang der betreffenden Berufsgruppe führt.SchlussfolgerungenDieser Artikel beschreibt zum ersten Mal die Ähnlichkeiten und Unterschiede bezüglich des Lohnniveaus, des Lohnrankings und der Lohnverteilung von 16 HRH-Berufsgruppen für 20 ausgewählte Länder. Er untersuch des Weiteren mögliche Einflussfaktoren. Die explorativen Befunde bestätigen die Annahme eines ähnlichen/vergleichbaren Lohnrankings in den untersuchten Ländern, während das Lohnniveau und die Lohnverteilung zwischen den Ländern nicht vergleichbar sind. Diese Erkenntnisse könnten dazu beitragen, Richtlinien und Politiken für die Zusammensetzung des Gesundheitspersonals sowie die Planung der Gesundheitsversorgung zu entwickeln.

Is the web a promising tool for data collection in developing countries? An analysis of the sample bias of 10 web and face-to-face surveys from Africa, Asia, and South America

Whereas the sample composition biases of web surveys have been discussed extensively for developed countries, studies for developing countries are scarce. This article helps to fill that gap by comparing similar non-probability-based web surveys (WEB) and probability-based face-to-face (F2F) surveys both to each other and to the labor force. An analysis of WageIndicator data on work and wages derived from surveys held in 2009–2013 in 10 developing countries (WEB-sample N = 9135; F2F-sample N = 14,659), shows that F2F samples resemble the labor force to a larger extent than web samples do. In both cases, individuals in their 20s and early 30s are overrepresented, and younger and older respondents are underrepresented. This trend is more pronounced in WEB than in F2F samples. However, the differences converge in countries with higher Internet usage. A comparison of the WEB and F2F samples shows that compositions differ greatly, with web respondents being younger, more often male, more often living alone, and higher educated, although these differences are smaller in countries with higher Internet usage. Given the cost differences between the two survey modes, one should nevertheless consider the potential of web surveys as an instrument to gain explorative insights, specifically when searching for individuals with particular characteristics.

Does migration 'pay off' for foreign-born migrant health workers? An exploratory analysis using the global WageIndicator dataset.

BackgroundThis study used the global WageIndicator web survey to answer the following research questions: (RQ1) What are the migration patterns of health workers? (RQ2) What are the personal and occupational drivers of migration? (RQ3) Are foreign-born migrant health workers discriminated against in their destination countries?MethodsOf the unweighted data collected in 2006–2014 from health workers aged 15–64 in paid employment, 7.9 % were on migrants (N = 44,394; 36 countries). To answer RQ1, binary logistic regression models were applied to the full sample. To answer RQ2, binary logistic regression was used to compare data on migrants with that on native respondents from the same source countries, a condition met by only four African countries (N = 890) and five Latin American countries (N = 6356). To answer RQ3, a multilevel analysis was applied to the full sample to take into account the nested structure of the data (N = 33,765 individual observations nested within 31 countries).ResultsRQ1: 57 % migrated to a country where the same language is spoken, 33 % migrated to neighbouring countries and 21 % migrated to former colonizing countries. Women and nurses migrated to neighbouring countries, nurses and older and highly educated workers to former colonizing countries and highly educated health workers and medical doctors to countries that have a language match. RQ2: In the African countries, nurses more often out-migrated compared to other health workers; in the Latin American countries, this is the case for doctors. Out-migrated health workers earn more and work fewer hours than comparable workers in source countries, but only Latin American health workers reported a higher level of life satisfaction. RQ3: We did not detect discrimination against migrants with respect to wages and occupational status. However, there seems to be a small wage premium for the group of migrants in other healthcare occupations. Except doctors, migrant health workers reported a lower level of life satisfaction.ConclusionsMigration generally seems to ‘pay off’ in terms of work and labour conditions, although accrued benefits are not equal for all cadres, regions and routes. Because the WageIndicator survey is a voluntary survey, these findings are exploratory rather than representative.

Does tolerance matter? A comparative study of well-being of persons in same-sex and mixed-sex unions across nine European countries

ABSTRACT In this study, we examine whether there is a well-being gap between persons in same-sex and mixed-sex unions. We consider the possible role that tolerance of homosexuality plays in the size of this gap by comparing these union types across nine European countries with varying levels of normative and legal tolerance (informal and formal institutional contexts, respectively). For social well-being, results indicate that the well-being gap indeed depends on both the informal and formal institutional contexts in a country. In intolerant societies, persons in same-sex unions have lower social well-being than persons in mixed-sex unions, whereas they fare slightly better in tolerant societies. We found that the normative dimension of tolerance matters more for the social well-being gap than the legal dimension. In line with our hypotheses, findings also show that men in same-sex couples are more affected by differences in the informal institutional context than women in same-sex couples. For depressive feelings, no significant joint effect of union type for either measure of tolerance was found. Overall, we demonstrate the theoretical usefulness of treating tolerance at the contextual level as a predictor of well-being by empirically testing the link between tolerance and well-being. We suggest considering intolerance also as a social problem on the country level, which is distinct from intolerance on the interpersonal level.

Vocational Training and Gender Segregation Across Europe

Abstract This chapter seeks to provide insights into a hitherto neglected topic – that of gender segregation among those who have taken part in vocational education and training (VET). In spite of a growing body of work on the link between educational and occupational segregation by gender, relatively little attention has been given to the specific role played by VET in facilitating gender-specific occupational segregation. Using the European Social Survey (ESS) for 20 European countries and comparable macro data from different European sources, the study examines the extent to which cross-national differences in the gender-typical or atypical occupational allocation of vocational graduates aged 20–34 can be attributed to VET-specific institutional differences. The findings are consistent with earlier research showing the protective role played by VET in reducing non-employment levels. The findings in relation to the gender-typing of work are somewhat surprising, as they indicate that VET system characteristics make relatively little difference to occupational outcomes among women, whether or not they have a VET qualification. Slightly stronger, but still modest, relationships are found between VET system characteristics and occupational outcomes for men. Male VET graduates are more likely to be in a male-typed job in systems with a higher proportion enrolled on vocational courses. In tracked systems, however, they also tend to be more likely to enter female-typed jobs. In systems where VET prepares people for a wider range of occupations, a VET qualification can act as a protective factor against non-employment, at least for men.

Designing a Sampling Frame for Same-Sex Couples and Families: The Unions in Context Study

This case is a detailed account of the planning and execution of the data collection for the Unions in Context study, which is a probability-based survey among lesbian, gay, and heterosexual couples and families in the Netherlands. On one hand, we situate the Unions in Context study in the context of the status quo of the field. We discuss the opportunities and challenges of the different types of pre-existing data sources that allow for the study of same-sex couples and families, such as convenience sample surveys, register and census data, and large-scale social surveys. In this discussion, we highlight the contribution of the Unions in Context data to the field. On the other hand, we outline the practical considerations made during the planning phase; the most commonly faced challenges when studying lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals quantitatively; and the solutions we thought of to address them. Specifically, we explain the steps of how we have succeeded in designing a sampling frame based on population registers to draw a random sample of same-sex and mixed-sex couples. This step-by-step account should enable other researchers interested in studying this difficult-to-reach population to replicate our approach.

Institutional constraints on cross-national differences in occupational sex segregation

As underlined in previous chapters, the distribution of women and men across occupations and hierarchical positions will differ across countries, as these vary with respect to educational, economic, political and cultural factors. These different institutional arrangements may shape resources, and influence preferences of individuals for a specific occupation or position as well as of employers for a specific applicant (Chafetz 1990, Molm 1993, Charles and Grusky 2004). Even though the above described interdependence between individual occupational choices and the institutional context is obvious, it has rarely been examined empirically. Prior comparative studies, frequently, content themselves with descriptive analyses of the relation between sex segregation indices and selected macro-level factors (see, for example Estevez-Abe 2005).