Stephen M. Drigotas

Willingness to Sacrifice in Close Relationships

The authors advance an interdependence analysis of willingness to sacrifice. Support for model predictions was revealed in 6 studies (3 cross-sectional survey studies, 1 simulation experiment, 2 longitudinal studies) that used a novel self-report measure and a behavioral measure of willingness to sacrifice. Willingness to sacrifice was associated with strong commitment, high satisfaction, poor alternatives, and high investments; feelings of commitment largely mediated the associations of these variables with willingness to sacrifice. Moreover, willingness to sacrifice was associated with superior couple functioning, operationalized in terms of level of dyadic adjustment and probability of couple persistence. In predicting adjustment, willingness to sacrifice accounted for significant variance beyond commitment, partially mediating the link between commitment and adjustment; such mediation was not significant for persistence.

Close partner as sculptor of the ideal self: behavioral affirmation and the Michelangelo phenomenon.

This work incorporates concepts from the behavioral confirmation tradition, self tradition, and interdependence tradition to identify an interpersonal process termed the Michelangelo phenomenon. The Michelangelo phenomenon describes the means by which the self is shaped by a close partners perceptions and behavior. Specifically, self movement toward the ideal self is described as a product of partner affirmation, or the degree to which a partners perceptions of the self and behavior toward the self are congruent with the selfs ideal. The results of 4 studies revealed strong associations between perceived partner affirmation and self movement toward the ideal self, using a variety of participant populations and measurement methods. In addition, perceived partner affirmation--particularly perceived partner behavioral affirmation--was strongly associated with quality of couple functioning and stability in ongoing relationships.

The Role of Communication in Interindividual-Intergroup Discontinuity

The present research was designed to explore the role of communication on interindividual-intergroup discontinuity in the context of the PDG-Alt matrix. (The PDG-Alt matrix is a prisoners dilemma game matrix that adds a third withdrawal choice to the usual cooperative and uncooperative choices of the PDG matrix, and interindividual-intergroup discontinuity is the tendency of intergroup relations to be more competitive and less cooperative than interindividual relations.) Several predictions implied by the fear and greed explanations of interindividual-intergroup discontinuity were tested. One prediction, an implication of the fear hypothesis, is that communication should produce a larger increase in the cooperation of individuals than of groups. This prediction is based partially on the assumption that the outgroup schema, which leads to more fear of groups than of individuals, should reduce the credibility of between group communication. Given, however, that without communication individuals may not cooperate, what will they do? Will they withdraw or will they compete? Another prediction, an implication of the greed hypothesis, is that the absence of communication should result in a greater increase in withdrawal for individuals than for groups. This prediction is based partially on the assumption that the social support provided to fellow group members for self-interested competitiveness is absent for individuals. These predictions were confirmed. It was argued that the lesser tendency of individuals to cooperate when there is no communication with the opponent may explain partially the differing results of past discontinuity research (which has involved communication) and research reported in the PDG literature (which typically has not involved communication).

The Cheating Heart: Scientific Explorations of Infidelity

Given the potential negative ramifications of infidelity, it is not surprising that researchers have attempted to delineate its root causes. Historically, descriptive approaches have simply identified the demographics of who is unfaithful and how often. However, recent developments in both evolutionary and investment-model research have greatly furthered understanding of infidelity. The field could gain additional insight by examining the similarities of these prominent approaches.

Interindividual-Intergroup Discontinuity in the Prisoner's Dilemma Game

The present research involved an examination of interindividual-intergroup discontinuity in the context of three different generalizations of the prisoners dilemma game (PDG). (Interindividual-intergroup discontinuity is the tendency of intergroup relations to be more competitive and less cooperative than interindividual relations.) Experiment 1 used a multi-prisoners dilemma (MPD) game to compare interaction between three individuals with interaction between three groups. Results revealed just as much discontinuity between three players (MPD) as between two players (PDG). Experiment 2 used the approach of n-person games to examine two further generalizations from the PDG. One generalization involved the intergroup public goods (IPG) game, and the other the intergroup prisoners dilemma (IPD) game. With both games, it was found that groups were more competitive than individuals. It was also found that discussion between groups is characterized by a higher frequency of fear and greed statements than is discussion between individuals.

Individual-Group Discontinuity from the Differing Perspectives of Campbell's Realistic Group Conflict Theory and Tajfel and Turner's Social Identity Theory:

Two experiments investigated the implications of realistic group conflict theory and social identity theory for explaining the individual-group discontinuity effect. We interpreted realistic group conflict theory as directly implying that individual-group discontinuity is motivated by competition for valued outcomes (max own); we interpreted social identity theory as suggesting that individual-group discontinuity is motivated by relativistic social comparisons (max rel). We developed a new three-choice matrix to differentiate max own from max rel competitiveness

The Generality of the Individual-Group Discontinuity Effect: Variations in Positivity-Negativity of Outcomes, Players' Relative Power, and Magnitude of Outcomes

In a series of previous studies the authors have shown that intergroup interactions are dramatically more competitive and less cooperative than individual interactions. This phenomenon has been termed a discontinuity effect. The basic paradigm in this research measures competition and cooperation by choices made in a prisoners dilemma game (PDG). Although a discontinuity effect has been observed in six separate studies, these have typically used a standard format. The present three studies extend the reliability and generality of the discontinuity effect by varying, respectively, the positivity-negativity of the outcomes in the PDG matrix, the power position of the players, and the magnitude of the PDG payoff values. In each of the three studies a statistically significant discontinuity effect was observed. The meaning of these studies is discussed, along with an unexpected interaction effect among gender, matrix type, and item sequence in the second study.