John Schopler

Intergroup Cognition and Intergroup Behavior

Contents: C. Sedikides, J. Schopler, C.A. InskoIntroduction. Part I:Intergroup Cognition and Intergroup Behavior: Conceptual Issues. M. Schaller, M.C. Rosell, C.H. Asp, Parsimony and Pluralism in the Psychological Study of Intergroup Processes. D. Wilder, A.F. Simon, Categorical and Dynamic Groups: Implications for Social Perception and Intergroup Behavior. Part II:Interindividual Versus Intergroup Cognition and Behavior. D.L. Hamilton, S.J. Sherman, B. Lickel, Perceiving Social Groups: The Importance of the Entitativity Continuum. C.A. Insko, J. Schopler, Differential Distrust of Groups and Individuals. C.A. Insko, J. Schopler, C. Sedikides, Personal Control, Entitativity, and Evolution. Part III:Processes Affecting Intergroup Cognition and Intergroup Behavior: Perceptual and Judgmental Processes. P.W. Linville, G.W. Fischer, Group Variability and Covariation: Effects on Intergroup Judgment and Behavior. M. Biernat, T.K. Vescio, M. Manis, Judging and Behaving Toward Members of Stereotyped Groups: A Shifting Standards Perspective. B. Wittenbrink, B. Park, C.M. Judd, The Role of Stereotypic Knowledge in the Construal of Person Models. Part IV:Processes Affecting Intergroup Cognition and Behavior: Motivational and Social Processes. T. Clare, S.T. Fiske, A Systemic View of Behavioral Confirmation: Counterpoint to the Individualist View. R.M. Kramer, D.M. Messick, Getting By With a Little Help From Our Enemies: Collective Paranoia and Its Role in Intergroup Relations. B. Simon, Individuals, Groups, and Social Change: On the Relationship Between Individual and Collective Self-Interpretations and Collective Action. J.M. Levine, R.L. Moreland, C.S. Ryan, Group Socialization in Intergroup Relations. Part V:On the Reduction of Unwanted Intergroup Cognition and Behavior. G.V. Bodenhausen, C.N. Macrae, J. Garst, Stereotypes in Thought and Deed: Social-Cognitive Origins of Intergroup Discrimination. J.F. Dovidio, S.L. Gaertner, A.M. Isen, M. Rust, P. Guerra, Positive Affect, Cognition, and the Reduction of Intergroup Bias. M. Hewstone, C.G. Lord, Changing Intergroup Cognitions and Intergroup Behavior: The Role of Typicality. N. Miller, L.M. Urban, E.J. Vanman, A Theoretical Analysis of Crossed Social Categorization Effects. Part VI:Concluding Commentary. D.M. Mackie, E.R. Smith, Intergroup Cognition and Intergroup Behavior: Crossing the Boundaries.

Beyond the group mind: a quantitative review of the interindividual-intergroup discontinuity effect.

This quantitative review of 130 comparisons of interindividual and intergroup interactions in the context of mixed-motive situations reveals that intergroup interactions are generally more competitive than interindividual interactions. The authors identify 4 moderators of this interindividual-intergroup discontinuity effect, each based on the theoretical perspective that the discontinuity effect flows from greater fear and greed in intergroup relative to interindividual interactions. Results reveal that each moderator shares a unique association with the magnitude of the discontinuity effect. The discontinuity effect is larger when (a) participants interact with an opponent whose behavior is unconstrained by the experimenter or constrained by the experimenter to be cooperative rather than constrained by the experimenter to be reciprocal, (b) group members make a group decision rather than individual decisions, (c) unconstrained communication between participants is present rather than absent, and (d) conflict of interest is severe rather than mild.

Individual-Group Discontinuity as a Function of Fear and Greed

Two studies tested the schema-based distrust interpretation of the tendency of intergroup relations to be more noncooperative (or competitive) than interindividual relations. According to this interpretation, anticipated competitiveness rationally leads to noncooperativ eness or defensive withdrawal. Thus, the postulated motivation is fear of the other groups competitive intent. Study 1 was a nonexperimental investigation in which discussion of distrust of another group was assessed and correlated with the number of cooperative choices. As predicted, the greater the within-group discussion of distrust for the other group, the less the number of cooperative choices. Study 2 was an experimental investigation that included as independent variables intergroup versus interindividual relations and PDG matrix versus PDG-Alt matrix (PDG matrix plus a third Alt or withdrawal, choice producing intermediate outcomes regardless of the opponents choice). As predicted, there were more withdrawal choices on the PDG-Alt matrix for groups than for individuals. However, it was still found that on the PDG-Alt matrix (where a safe withdrawal choice is possible), groups competed more than individuals.

The Discontinuity Effect in Interpersonal and Intergroup Relations: Generality and Mediation

In a series of experimental studies we have found that intergroup, compared to interindividual behavior, is more competitive and less cooperative (the discontinuity effect). After discussing the generality of this phenomenon, the possible mechanisms mediating the effect are analyzed. The role of fear and greed, in particular, are evaluated against existing empirical evidence. We also present a preliminary study using two n-person expansions of the Prisoners Dilemma Game, which allow for competition within own-group as well as between groups. The chapter concludes with a consideration of possible ways of reducing discontinuity.

Perceived ingroup entitativity and intergroup bias: an interconnection of self and others

Campbells (1958) concept of ingroup entitativity is reformulated as a perceived interconnection of self and others. A 2 (intergroup relations: competitive, neutral)×3 (intragroup interaction: low, medium, high) between-subjects design was used to examine (1) the effects of intergroup and intragroup relations on perceived ingroup entitativity and (2) the relation between ingroup entitativity and intergroup bias. Regardless of the relations between groups, members who experienced intragroup interaction had stronger perceptions of ingroup entitativity and stronger representations of the aggregate of ingroup and outgroup members as two separate groups than members who lacked intragroup interaction. Furthermore, perceptions of ingroup entitativity mediated the effect of the salience of the intergroup boundary on behavioral intergroup bias. These results call into question the ‘intergroup’ nature of group based phenomena. An ingroup entitativity framework is presented that locates the source of group-based phenomena (e.g. intergroup bias) in intragroup processes. Copyright

Self-Consciousness and Clothing

A questionnaire study was undertaken to investigate if different aspects of self-consciousness related to clothing attitudes and strategic use of clothing. The major purpose was to determine if the trait of public self-consciousness, as delineated by Buss, would be systematically related to clothing measures. A secondary goal was to investigate sex differences, with the expectation that the linkage between clothing measures and self-consciousness would be stronger for women. Participating in the study were 104 subjects. Clothing measures showed a consistent and pervasive correlation with scores on public self-consciousness. Contrary to expectations, the magnitude of these relationships was greater for men than for women. The results are discussed in terms of the tactical use of such social and symbolic products as clothing for self-definition.

Memory for and experience of differential competitive behavior of individuals and groups

Four experiments investigated whether differential experiences with groups and individuals led to previously obtained results of greater competitive expectations in intergroup than interindividual relations. In Experiment 1, participants rated their recalled instances of intergroup relations as more competitive than their interindividual relations. In Experiment 2, a relatively greater proportion of competitive to cooperative intergroup relations were recalled compared with interindividual relations. In Experiment 3, participants recorded relevant interactions for 7 days, and rated their intergroup relations as more competitive than their interindividual relations. In Experiment 4, participants recorded a relatively greater number of cooperative than competitive relations with individuals than with groups. These results can be interpreted as a demonstration in a nonlaboratory context that intergroup relations are more competitive than interindividual relations.

Individual-group discontinuity: The role of a consensus rule

Abstract The present experiment examined the conditions necessary for the creation of psychologically real groups (entitativity). Stated differently, the experiment examined the conditions required to make an aggregate of three individuals separately interact with another aggregate of three individuals in the competitive manner characteristic of the way in which a group of three individuals has been observed to interact with another group of three individuals. Interactions occurred between two aggregates of three individuals via 10 versions of a PDG matrix. In four of the five conditions each subject in one aggregate interacted with a single subject from the “opposing” aggregate. In the first, or interdependence, condition the three individuals in each aggregate were placed in separate rooms, although they did share their earnings. In the second, or contact, condition the three individuals were placed in the same room but not allowed to talk to each other. In the third, or discussion, condition the three individuals were required to discuss their separate PDG choices with each other. In the fourth, or consensus, condition the subjects were required to reach consensus regarding their separate PDG choices. In the fifth, or group-all, condition the subjects in each aggregate collectively interacted with the subjects in the opposing aggregate. The results indicated that the group-all and consensus conditions produced equivalently lower amounts of cooperativeness than the interdependence, contact, and discussion conditions. These results were interpreted as indicating that a consensus rule is necessary for the creation of entitativity.

Interindividual-intergroup discontinuity reduction through the anticipation of future interaction.

Consistent with the role of a long-term perspective in reducing the tendency of intergroup relations to be more competitive than interindividual relations in the context of noncorrespondent outcomes, an experiment demonstrated that anticipated future interaction reduced intergroup but not interindividual competitiveness. Further results indicated that the effect was present only for groups composed of members high in abstractness (Openness-Intellect on the Big 5 Inventory and Intuition on the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory) who trusted their opponents.

The Role of Communication in Interindividual-Intergroup Discontinuity

The present research was designed to explore the role of communication on interindividual-intergroup discontinuity in the context of the PDG-Alt matrix. (The PDG-Alt matrix is a prisoners dilemma game matrix that adds a third withdrawal choice to the usual cooperative and uncooperative choices of the PDG matrix, and interindividual-intergroup discontinuity is the tendency of intergroup relations to be more competitive and less cooperative than interindividual relations.) Several predictions implied by the fear and greed explanations of interindividual-intergroup discontinuity were tested. One prediction, an implication of the fear hypothesis, is that communication should produce a larger increase in the cooperation of individuals than of groups. This prediction is based partially on the assumption that the outgroup schema, which leads to more fear of groups than of individuals, should reduce the credibility of between group communication. Given, however, that without communication individuals may not cooperate, what will they do? Will they withdraw or will they compete? Another prediction, an implication of the greed hypothesis, is that the absence of communication should result in a greater increase in withdrawal for individuals than for groups. This prediction is based partially on the assumption that the social support provided to fellow group members for self-interested competitiveness is absent for individuals. These predictions were confirmed. It was argued that the lesser tendency of individuals to cooperate when there is no communication with the opponent may explain partially the differing results of past discontinuity research (which has involved communication) and research reported in the PDG literature (which typically has not involved communication).