Steven L. Henry

Vascularized groin lymph node flap transfer for postmastectomy upper limb lymphedema: Flap anatomy, recipient sites, and outcomes

Background: Vascularized groin lymph node flap transfer is an emerging approach to the treatment of postmastectomy upper limb lymphedema. The authors describe the pertinent flap anatomy, surgical technique including different recipient sites, and outcome of this technique. Methods: Ten cadaveric dissections were performed to clarify the vascular supply of the superficial groin lymph nodes. Ten patients underwent vascularized groin lymph node flap transfer for postmastectomy upper limb lymphedema using the wrist (n = 8) or elbow (n = 2) as a recipient site. Ten patients who chose to undergo physical therapy were used as controls. Intraoperatively, indocyanine green was injected subcutaneously on the flap margin to observe the lymph drainage. Outcomes were assessed using improvement of circumferential differentiation, reduction rate, and decreased number of episodes of cellulitis. Results: A mean 6.2 ± 1.3 groin lymph nodes with consistent pedicles were identified in the cadaveric dissections. After indocyanine injection, the fluorescence was drained from the flap edge into the donor vein, followed by the recipient vein. At a mean follow-up of 39.1 ± 15.7 months, the mean improvement of circumferential differentiation was 7.3 ± 2.7 percent and the reduction rate was 40.4 ± 16.1 percent in the vascularized groin lymph node group, which were statistically greater than those of the physical therapy group (1.7 ± 4.6 percent and 8.3 ± 34.7 percent, respectively; p < 0.01 and p = 0.02, respectively). Conclusions: The superficial groin lymph nodes were confirmed as vascularized with reliable arterial perfusion. Vascularized groin lymph node flap transfer using the wrist or elbow as a recipient site is an efficacious approach to treating postmastectomy upper limb lymphedema. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, III.

The effect of herbal medicines on platelet function: an in vivo experiment and review of the literature.

Background: Herbal medicines are used by a considerable number of surgical patients. An increased risk of bleeding, substantiated by anecdotal reports, has been attributed to the use of certain herbs, and numerous in vitro experiments have identified some herbal extracts as platelet inhibitors. The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether standard commercial preparations of commonly used herbal medicines have an effect on platelet function in vivo and, by extension, to provide clinical scientific evidence of the safety of their use in the perioperative period. Methods: Five commercially available herbal agents were investigated, including Ginkgo biloba, garlic, Asian ginseng, St. John’s wort, and saw palmetto. In a blinded fashion, one of the agents was administered to 10 adult volunteers at the manufacturer’s recommended dose for 2 weeks. At the end of the 2-week period, in vivo platelet function was quantified using the PFA-100 assay. After a 2-week “washout” period, the protocol was repeated using a different agent. This 4-week cycle was repeated for each of the five herbal agents, as well as the control agent aspirin. Results: In vivo platelet function was not affected by the administration of any herbal agent and was markedly inhibited with the administration of aspirin. Conclusions: The herbal medicines investigated in this study do not affect platelet function in vivo. Neither this experiment nor a review of the literature supports the concern of perioperative bleeding in users of these herbal medicines.

The mechanism of vascularized lymph node transfer for lymphedema: natural lymphaticovenous drainage.

Background: Vascularized lymph node flap transfer for the treatment of upper and lower limb lymphedema has had promising results. This study was performed to investigate the mechanism of lymph drainage of a vascularized lymph node flap both experimentally and clinically. Methods: In the experimental study, 18 Sprague-Dawley rats were used to create 36 flaps, either a groin lymph node flap or an abdominal cutaneous flap that did not contain lymph nodes. Indocyanine green dye was injected into the edge of 12 lymph node flaps, directly into a lymph node of 12 lymph node flaps, and into the edge of 12 cutaneous flaps. In the clinical study, an identical study design was used, with 24 vascularized lymph node flaps and 12 cutaneous flaps not containing lymph nodes. Results: Experimentally, fluorescence was detected in the pedicle vein after a mean latency period of 153 ± 129 seconds when the edge of the lymph node flap was injected and 12.8 ± 8.1 seconds when the lymph node was directly injected. Fluorescence was not detected in the pedicle vein of the cutaneous flaps (p < 0.01). Clinically, fluorescence was detected in the pedicle vein after a mean latency period of 346 ± 249 seconds when the edge of the lymph node flap was injected and 23.5 ± 27.1 seconds when the lymph node was directly injected. Fluorescence was not detected in the pedicle vein of the cutaneous flaps (p < 0.01). Conclusion: The vascularized lymph node flap drains lymph into the pedicle vein, both experimentally and clinically. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, V.

Surgical strategies to salvage the venous compromised deep inferior epigastric perforator flap

Background:Elevation of the deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap interrupts its superficial venous system, and if drainage through the deep venous system is inadequate the flap may develop congestion. The purpose of this retrospective study was to determine the fate of the congested DIEP flap and to optimize the strategy for its salvage. Methods:Thirty-two of 162 patients who underwent unilateral breast reconstruction with a DIEP flap developed venous congestion. For the purpose of outcome analysis, cases were retrospectively allocated to “observation-only” (group A, n = 11), postoperative salvage (group B, n = 7), and intraoperative salvage (group C, n = 14), and complications among the various groups were compared to determine the necessity and optimal timing of salvage intervention. Results:Two flaps (1 in group A, another in group B) failed completely, giving a success rate 98.8%. The complication rate and hospital stay were significantly lower in group C than in group B (P = 0.03, P = 0.02). The rate of venous congestion requiring salvage procedures was 13%, with a salvage rate of 95%. Salvage procedures included venous augmentation with an additional recipient vein in 7 procedures, adding superficial inferior epigastric vein (SIEV) to DIEV in 11 procedures, and substituting with SIEV in 7 procedures. There was no statistical difference in flap salvage rate using the SIEV between “augmentation” and “substitution.” Conclusions:The salvage procedures for venous compromised DIEP flap are better performed intraoperatively rather than postoperatively to prevent further complications. The engorged SIEV could be incorporated by anastomosing to an additional recipient vein or adding to the DIEV-internal mammary vein axis or substituting for DIEV.

Risk factors and complications in reduction mammaplasty: novel associations and preoperative assessment.

Background: Although risk factors for complications following reduction mammaplasty are well known, it is difficult to assess risk for specific complications among patients with multiple factors or varying gradations of a single factor. The purpose of this study was to identify all associations between patient characteristics and specific complications and to quantify the risk attributable to these factors, to assess a prospective patient’s individualized risk. Methods: Patient characteristics and complications were identified through retrospective chart review of a consecutive series of patients who underwent Wise-pattern, inferior-pedicle reduction mammaplasty performed by the senior author (C.L.P.) over the past 10 years. Chi-square, t test, logistic regression, and decision tree analyses were used to identify complications attributable to specific risk factors and, when possible, to quantify the risk imparted by those factors. Results: The charts of 485 patients were reviewed. Factors predictive of nonspecific complications included hypertension, fibromyalgia, previous breast surgery, and fibroproliferative breast abnormality. Factors predictive of specific complications included body mass index, associated with wound-healing complications; mass of resection, associated with wound-healing complications and decreased nipple sensitivity and inversely related to hypertrophic scarring; and intraoperative hypotension, associated with hematoma. Conclusions: Based on the review of a large series of reduction mammaplasties, specific and quantifiable patient characteristics were linked to specific and quantifiable complications. Novel associations were drawn, including increased risk of hematoma with intraoperative hypotension and decreased risk of hypertrophic scarring with mass of resection. A “risk assessor” was constructed that estimates a prospective patient’s individualized risk based on selected preoperatively identifiable characteristics, facilitating patient selection and preoperative counseling.

A prospective, randomized, double-blind, controlled trial of continuous local anesthetic infusion in cosmetic breast augmentation.

Background: Narcotic pain medications are a significant component of most postoperative pain control regimens. Although they are usually effective, they produce several untoward side effects and sometimes provide inadequate analgesia. The continuous infusion of local anesthetic agents (via pain pump) has been used to supplement narcotic analgesics after various surgical procedures. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the pain pump after cosmetic breast augmentation. Methods: Twenty-five women were enrolled in the study; five were eliminated from analysis because of data inadequacy or device problems. After bilateral augmentation, the remaining 20 patients received a 4-day continuous infusion of bupivacaine in one breast pocket and saline in the other. Laterality of bupivacaine infusion was randomized and blinded to both the patient and the surgeon. Patients completed a questionnaire on postoperative days 1, 2, 3, 4, and 7, rating their pain on a scale of 0 to 10, with 10 being worst. Results: On postoperative day 1, the mean pain score was 4.7 on the bupivacaine side versus 5.4 on the saline side (p = 0.36). On postoperative days 2, 3, 4, and 7, the mean scores were 4.3 versus 4.6 (p = 0.63), 3.3 versus 3.8 (p = 0.50), 3.4 versus 3.6 (p = 0.78), and 3.4 versus 3.1 (p = 0.63) for the bupivacaine and saline sides, respectively. Conclusions: The pain pump appears to provide breast augmentation patients marginal improvement in pain control, although this advantage did not reach statistical significance in this study. The benefit, if real, also appears to wane over the first postoperative week.

The inhibitory effect of minocycline on hypertrophic scarring.

Background: Matrix metalloproteinases are enzymes that serve to degrade the extracellular matrix, giving them a central role in the inflammatory and wound-healing processes; they have been implicated in the pathophysiology of hypertrophic scarring. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of minocycline, a matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor, on hypertrophic scarring. Methods: Standardized wounds were created on the ears of eight New Zealand White rabbits. Half of the rabbits received daily injections of minocycline, whereas the other half received daily injections of saline (control). After 4 weeks, the resulting ear scars were harvested. Histologic slides were prepared from the thickest cross-sections of the scars, and from these slides the cross-sectional area of each scar was measured. A hypertrophic index was calculated by comparing the area of the scar to the baseline value of unwounded skin. Statistical analysis was performed using the SAS/STAT NESTED Procedure for hierarchical data. Results: Among the rabbits treated with minocycline, the mean hypertrophic index was 1.08 ± 0.01, compared with 1.54 ± 0.03 in the control group (p = 0.03), representing an 85 percent reduction in hypertrophic area. Conclusions: Systemically administered minocycline significantly reduces the severity of hypertrophic scarring in a rabbit model. Although not directly examined in this study, matrix metalloproteinase inhibition is hypothesized to be responsible for this effect.

Inclusion of tissue beyond a midline scar in the deep inferior epigastric perforator flap

Background:A lower abdominal midline scar is known to restrict the amount of tissue that can be included in a deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap. However, reconstructive demands have occasionally led us to include substantial territory beyond the scar. The purpose of this study is to review our experience with such flaps and to determine whether a meaningful amount of tissue can be reliably harvested across a midline scar. Methods:Within a series of 125 DIEP flaps harvested across the entire lower abdomen (zones I–IV), 11 contained a midline scar. These 11 cases were compared with the remaining 114 in terms of (1) the amount of tissue beyond the scar that could be retained with the flap based on intraoperative assessment of vascularity and (2) postoperative complications. Results:A significantly smaller percentage of the flap volume could be retained in scarred abdomens (70% of the harvested ellipse [ie, 20% beyond the midline]) versus unscarred abdomens (83%; P = 0.01). Complications were more frequent in the flaps with scars (55% vs. 25%; P = 0.04), although most of these complications were easily manageable and acceptable outcomes were achieved in all 11 cases. Conclusion:The rate of complications is significantly higher when tissue across a midline scar is included in a DIEP flap. However, in our experience, these complications are relatively mild, and in most cases, a substantial amount of tissue beyond the midline can be used, thereby increasing the volume available for reconstruction without resorting to dual-supply procedures.

Splinting after carpal tunnel release: Current practice, scientific evidence, and trends

Background: Postoperative splinting is common after carpal tunnel release, despite a lack of scientific evidence supporting its value. The purpose of this study was to characterize postoperative splinting regimens among hand surgeons and to identify trends in splint use after this procedure. Methods: Questionnaires were mailed to members of the American Society for Surgery of the Hand. Recipients were asked to record whether and for how long they use splints after carpal tunnel release. They were also asked to indicate their training (i.e., orthopedic, plastic, or general surgery). Results were compared with those of previously conducted surveys. Results: One thousand ninety-one questionnaires were returned, for a response rate of 48 percent. Fifty-three percent of respondents use splinting postoperatively. Duration of splinting varied tremendously, from 1 to 42 days. Splinting patterns were similar across all training backgrounds. In comparison with related surveys conducted in 1987 and 1997, a trend is evident toward less use of splinting after carpal tunnel release. Conclusions: The use and duration of splinting after carpal tunnel release vary widely among hand surgeons. This divergence of practice implies that there is little therapeutic benefit to splinting after this procedure, a concept supported by substantial scientific evidence and by a trend away from splinting over the past 20 years.

External doppler monitoring of free flaps through negative pressure dressings.

The negative pressure dressing is a highly effective modality for coverage and bolstering of skin grafts in the early postoperative period. In the situation of a skin graft over a free flap, the surgeon might be inclined to avoid this modality out of concern that the dressing would deleteriously effect flap survival or impede flap monitoring. This case series supports the safety of the negative pressure dressing and demonstrates a technical modification that permits external Doppler monitoring of the flap through the dressing. Thus, this technique provides an ideal environment for skin graft healing while maintaining the ability to monitor the flap in a straightforward manner and also simplifies nursing care.