Sue Black

The Upper Limb

This chapter focuses on the components of the upper limb with emphasis on the humerus, the radius, the ulna, and the hand. The perinatal humerus is more robust than the radius, ulna, and fibula. The proximal humeral epiphysis is smaller than the femoral head during early development. The capitulum is the only distal center that is likely to be recognized in isolation. It is wedge-shaped, with a wider lateral end. This chapter then moves to the discussion of the radius. The perinatal radius is more gracile than the humerus, femur, and tibia, and shorter than the ulna and fibula. It is characterized by its tuberosity and flared distal end. The distal epiphysis increasingly assumes a triangular wedge shape, although this is less obvious during its early stages of development. The perinatal ulna is more gracile than the humerus, femur, and tibia; longer than the radius; and similar in length to the fibula. The distal ulnar epiphysis bears a distinct notch; the distal radial epiphysis is round. This chapter then turns the discussion to the hand. Metacarpals become more recognizable as ossification spreads into the bases. Identification of individual metacarpal heads is difficult and generally relies on the presence of a single individual so that an appropriate head can be fitted to a shaft. This chapter also explains bases of the middle phalanges and bases of the distal phalanges. It also has an account on metrics, general development, and union times, which are explained with the help of various references.

Age Changes in the Clavicle: from the Early Neonatal Period to Skeletal Maturity

Of all the long bones in the human skeleton, it is the clavicle which displays the longest period of growth-related activity, rendering it particularly useful for the estimation of age at death in the earlier years. However, because of the universal paucity of documented juvenile remains, most previous studies have, by necessity, not only been based on material of estimated age at death but also restricted to a narrow age range. The aim of the present study was to chart developmental age-related change in the clavicle across its full growth range using juvenile and young adult material of documented age at death. Maximum diaphysial length was recorded for prepubertal individuals and a grading of the progressive alterations in medial epiphysial morphology was recorded for post-pubertal specimens. In this way, age changes in the clavicle were examined across its developmental maturity continuum.

Sex determination from the foramen magnum: discriminant function analysis in an eighteenth and nineteenth century British sample

The successful identification of the deceased is vital to the progress of any forensic investigation. One of the principal biological traits to be established from skeletal remains is the sex of the individual. This becomes more difficult if only parts of a skeleton are found or if the bones are compromised by physical insults such as fire, explosions or violence. The basal region of the occipital bone is covered by a large volume of soft tissue and is therefore in a relatively well-protected anatomical position, and as such, classification of sex using the occipital bone may prove useful in cases of significantly disrupted remains. The aim of this paper is to evaluate manually recorded morphometric variables of the region of the foramen magnum using both discriminant function analysis and linear regression. The skulls utilised in this study were selected from the eighteenth to nineteenth century documented skeletal collection of St. Bride’s Church, Fleet Street, London. Adult human skulls n = 158 (♂82/♀76) were measured to derive statistical functions. The results demonstrated that significant sexual dimorphism is present in the cranial base of the St. Bride’s material. The correctly classified crania within this population ranged from 65.8% for univariate functions to 70.3% for multivariate functions within the cranial sample. Males were correctly classified at 70.7% and females at 69.7% using multivariate functions. The linear regression equations predicted sex in the cranial sample correctly for 76% of the males and 70% for the females using different variables; however, overall highest correct prediction percentage was only 68%. Cross-validation brought the percentage down in some cases, but it was concluded that, overall, the expression of sexual dimorphism in the foramen magnum region within the St. Bride’s population is significantly demonstrable, and therefore, this area of the skull should be considered useful in the identification of sex.

Forensic Human Identification: An Introduction

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The Lower Limb

The aim of this chapter is to describe the lower limb using pictures. It focuses on explaining the femur, the patella, the tibia, the fibula, and the foot. It begins with a discussion on the femur. The femur is the largest of the long bones and may be confused with any of the other long bones. The greater trochanter assumes a boomerang-shaped appearance by five to six years, with the angle on its lateral side. The distal femoral epiphysis is larger than the proximal tibial epiphysis. The patella is a biconvex disc with a slightly pointed apex and two surfaces composed of porous bone, in early development. In early adolescence, the superior part of the lateral border is often flat. The perinatal tibia is more robust than the radius, ulna, and fibula, shorter than the femur and similar in length to the humerus. The proximal tibia is identifiable during the second year but may be confused with the distal femoral epiphysis. The distal epiphysis becomes distinct around three to four years of age. The perinatal fibula is shorter and less robust than the humerus, femur, and tibia. It is similar in length to the ulna; however, the ulna is more bulky and displays its characteristic proximal end. It is straight, narrow, and relatively featureless. This chapter then turns to the discussion of the foot explaining the regional identification and the intraregional identification alongwith the identification of its various components. This chapter also has an account on metrics, appearance times, and union times, which are explained with the help of various references.

Sex determination from the occipital condyle: discriminant function analysis in an eighteenth and nineteenth century British sample.

Fragmentary human remains compromised by different types of inhumation, or physical insults such as explosions, fires, and mutilations may frustrate the use of traditional morphognostic sex determination methods. The basicranium is protected by a large soft tissue mass comprising muscle, tendon, and ligaments. As such, the occipital region may prove useful for sex identification in cases of significantly fragmented remains. The aims of this paper are to (1) evaluate sexual dimorphism in British cranial bases by manually recorded unilateral and bilateral condylar length and width as well as intercondylar measurements and (2) develop discriminant functions for sex determination for this cranial sample. The crania selected for this study are part of the 18th-19th century documented skeletal collection of St. Brides Church, Fleet Street, London. Adult human skulls (n = 146; male75/female71) were measured to derive statistical functions. Results indicated that expression of sexual dimorphism in the occipital condylar region within the St. Brides population is demonstrable but low. Crossvalidated classification accuracy ranged between 69.2 and 76.7%, and sex bias ranged from 0.3 to 9.7%. Therefore, the use of discriminant functions derived from occipital condyles, especially in British skeletal populations, should only be considered in cases of fragmented cranial bases when no other morphognostic or morphometric method can be utilized for sex determination.

Comparison of Ages of Epiphyseal Union in North American and Bosnian Skeletal Material

The accurate determination of age at death is a critical component in the analysis of human skeletal remains. Population specific techniques are often used without due consideration of the provenance of the material being studied. This communication considers the ages at which epiphyseal union occur in young Bosnian males and compares those findings to data published by McKern and Stewart on young North American soldiers killed during the Korean War. Of the ten epiphyses considered in this study, all elements were observed to be at least two years in advance in the Bosnian sample compared to the American sample. This article demonstrates that whilst standards based on an American sample produce broadly applicable age ranges for use on forensic work in the Balkans, the age ranges generated produce an upper age limit that is often two or more years older than the chronological age. Therefore, it is desirable, that wherever possible, appropriate standards should be devised for more accurate aging reflecting population specific profiles.

Anthropological Measurement of Lower Limb and Foot Bones Using Multi-Detector Computed Tomography

Abstract:  Anthropological examination of defleshed bones is the gold standard for osteological measurement in forensic practice. However, multi‐detector computed tomography (MDCT) offers the opportunity of three‐dimensional imaging of skeletal elements, allowing measurement of bones in any plane without defleshing. We present our experiences of the examination of 15 human lower limbs in different states of decomposition using MDCT. We present our method of imaging and radiological measurement of the bones including sex assessment. The radiological measurements were undertaken by three professional groups–anthropology, radiology, and forensic pathology–both at the site of scanning and at a remote site. The results were compared to anthropological oestological assessment of the defleshed bones. We discuss the limitations of this technique and the potential applications of our observations. We introduce the concept of remote radiological anthropological measurement of bones, so‐called tele‐anthro‐radiology and the role that this could play in providing the facility for standardization of protocols, international peer review and quality assurance schemes.

Fimag: The United Kingdom Disaster Victim/Forensic Identification Imaging System

Abstract:  Imaging is an integral diagnostic tool in mass fatality investigations undertaken traditionally by plain X‐rays, fluoroscopy, and dental radiography. However, little attention has been given to appropriate image reporting, secure data transfer and storage particularly in relation to the need to meet stringent judicial requirements. Notwithstanding these limitations, it is the risk associated with the safe handling and investigation of contaminated fatalities which is providing new challenges for mass fatality radiological imaging. Mobile multi‐slice computed tomography is an alternative to these traditional modalities as it provides a greater diagnostic yield and an opportunity to address the requirements of the criminal justice system. We present a new national disaster victim/forensic identification imaging system—Fimag—which is applicable for both contaminated and non‐contaminated mass fatality imaging and addresses the issues of judicial reporting. We suggest this system opens a new era in radiological diagnostics for mass fatalities.

Post-mortem computed tomography and 3D imaging: anthropological applications for juvenile remains

Anthropological examination of defleshed bones is routinely used in medico-legal investigations to establish an individual’s biological profile. However, when dealing with the recently deceased, the removal of soft tissue from bone can be an extremely time consuming procedure that requires the presence of a trained anthropologist. In addition, due to its invasive nature, in some disaster victim identification scenarios the maceration of bones is discouraged by religious practices and beliefs, or even prohibited by national laws and regulations. Currently, three different radiological techniques may be used in the investigative process; plain X-ray, dental X-ray and fluoroscopy. However, recent advances in multi-detector computed tomography (MDCT) mean that it is now possible to acquire morphological skeletal information from high resolution images, reducing the necessity for invasive procedures. This review paper considers the possible applications of a virtual anthropological examination by reviewing the main juvenile age determination methods used by anthropologists at present and their possible adaption to MDCT.