Susan G. Clark

College and University Environmental Programs as a Policy Problem (Part 1): Integrating Knowledge, Education, and Action for a Better World?

The environmental sciences/studies movement, with more than 1000 programs at colleges and universities in the United States and Canada, is unified by a common interest—ameliorating environmental problems through empirical enquiry and analytic judgment. Unfortunately, environmental programs have struggled in their efforts to integrate knowledge across disciplines and educate students to become sound problem solvers and leaders. We examine the environmental program movement as a policy problem, looking at overall goals, mapping trends in relation to those goals, identifying the underlying factors contributing to trends, and projecting the future. We argue that despite its shared common interest, the environmental program movement is disparate and fragmented by goal ambiguity, positivistic disciplinary approaches, and poorly rationalized curricula, pedagogies, and educational philosophies. We discuss these challenges and the nature of the changes that are needed in order to overcome them. In a subsequent article (Part 2) we propose specific strategies for improvement.

College and University Environmental Programs as a Policy Problem (Part 2): Strategies for Improvement

Environmental studies and environmental sciences programs in American and Canadian colleges and universities seek to ameliorate environmental problems through empirical enquiry and analytic judgment. In a companion article (Part 1) we describe the environmental program movement (EPM) and discuss factors that have hindered its performance. Here, we complete our analysis by proposing strategies for improvement. We recommend that environmental programs re-organize around three principles. First, adopt as an overriding goal the concept of human dignity—defined as freedom and social justice in healthy, sustainable environments. This clear higher-order goal captures the human and environmental aspirations of the EPM and would provide a more coherent direction for the efforts of diverse participants. Second, employ an explicit, genuinely interdisciplinary analytical framework that facilitates the use of multiple methods to investigate and address environmental and social problems in context. Third, develop educational programs and applied experiences that provide students with the technical knowledge, powers of observation, critical thinking skills and management acumen required for them to become effective professionals and leaders. Organizing around these three principles would build unity in the EPM while at the same time capitalizing on the strengths of the many disciplines and diverse local conditions involved.

Numerical and Demographic Responses of Pumas to Changes in Prey Abundance: Testing Current Predictions

Abstract Information on factors affecting population size of pumas (Puma concolor) can be important because their principal prey over most of the western United States are valued big game species (e.g., mule deer [Odocoileus hemionus], elk [Cervus elaphus], and bighorn sheep [Ovis canadensis]). Based on the hypothesis that puma numbers are limited by their food supply, puma populations should track changes in prey abundance by growing exponentially with increases in prey and by declining with a lag response when prey decreases. Additional predictions proposed by researchers are that body mass of pumas, female productivity, kitten survival, and adult survival should decrease after a prey decline. We used a 15-year database from a hunted population of pumas in southern Idaho and northwestern Utah to test these predictions. During the 15-year time span of the database, a major decline in mule deer abundance occurred. Estimates of puma numbers and demographic characteristics came from intensive capture and radiocollaring efforts. We calculated kitten and adult survival with MICROMORT software. We found that adult puma numbers increased exponentially at r = 0.07 during a period of increasing mule deer numbers. Four years after the mule deer abundance declined, puma numbers decreased at a rate of r = −0.06. Body mass of female pumas was lower after the decline in puma numbers (42.6 ± SE = 1.2 kg, n = 40 vs. 40.1 ± 0.64 kg, n = 34, t = 5.06, P = 0.045). Kitten survival was less after the decline in deer abundance (0.573 ± 0.016, n = 30 vs. 0.856 ± 0.015, n = 25, Z = 2.40, P < 0.01). Survival of resident females was significantly less after the decline in puma numbers (0.783 ± 0.03 vs. 0.929 ± 0.019, U = 55.0, P = 0.009). Female productivity did not differ before or after the decline in deer abundance. Our results supported the majority of the predictions concerning the impact of changing deer abundance, which supported the hypothesis that the abundance of mule deer limited our population of pumas.

A manifesto for theory in environmental studies and sciences

Environmental studies and sciences (ESS), an inherently practical field, nonetheless demands greater attention to its theoretical assumptions as a necessary step toward continued intellectual and pedagogical development and real-world relevance. This need for theory arises from the status of ESS as an integrative interdiscipline—one practitioners of ESS celebrate, yet with considerably greater challenges in achieving inclusivity and coherence than other interdisciplinary fields face. Three examples are briefly raised here: the definition of environment in ESS, how environmental actors are conceptualized, and the identity of ESS as a problem-oriented field. These three examples are initial priorities requiring better theorization, with many intellectual resources ESS can draw upon to address them. We close by reminding the reader that theories are ideas that take us places, not just idle speculation, and by advocating “theory across the (ESS) curriculum.” In addition to the three examples we cover, we invite the reader to join us in identifying and evaluating other current theoretical assumptions in ESS, in reframing ESS on more robust theoretical grounds, and in integrating this work into the curriculum.

An informational approach to sustainability: "intelligence" in conservation and natural resource management policy.

Information about environmental problems and their contexts is necessary to all sustainability efforts. Most people recognize this fact and begin their work by calling for a review of the information available about the environmental problems at hand. Information is gathered, processed, and disseminated through an intelligence function—an activity in conservation and management policy. The intelligence function is one of seven inter-related functions in a complete decision (management or policy) process. The way the intelligence activity and related activities (e.g., promotion, implementation, appraisal) are carried out determines whether sustainability efforts are successful. Features of a high quality intelligence function are described in detail and the standards of dependability, comprehensiveness, relevance, timing, creativity, openness, and economy examined. The goals of the intelligence activity are discussed in an interdisciplinary manner. Five means to improve the intelligence function are described—including changing the participants involved, their perspectives on problem solving, the situation in which they interact, the base values (e.g., power, wealth, skill) that they use, and the strategies they employ. If intelligence, as well as the other decision process functions, is carried out with high quality, then we can reasonably expect significant improvements in the conservation and management of biodiversity and ecosystems, and sustainability efforts worldwide.

Understanding Patterns of Human Interactions and Decision Making: An Initial Map of Podocarpus National Park, Ecuador

Successful conservation is as much about people and how they make decisions as it is about flora and fauna. Just as it is possible for a practitioner to systematically understand the biophysical patterns and processes of a natural resource issue, there are methods to systematically understand patterns of human interactions and the processes of decision making that affects these issues. Understanding these patterns and processes can unearth more effective interventions to improve management and policy. We use case material from a rapid assessment of Podocarpus National Park (PNP), Ecuador (March 10–19, 2005) to introduce a proven framework that is systematic yet flexible, designed to understand patterns of human interactions (arenas) and decision making. While outlining this framework, we begin to create a narrative map of how people interact and how the decision-making process occurs around PNP. We suggest that participants involved in the conservation of PNP use such a framework to better understand the situation in which they find themselves. In reference to our initial assessment of PNP, we suggest the concept of prototyping, particularly through community-based initiatives, as a tool to help improve arenas and decision making.

Harnessing values to save the rhinoceros: insights from Namibia

The rate at which the poaching of rhinoceroses has escalated since 2010 poses a threat to the long-term persistence of extant rhinoceros populations. The policy response has primarily called for increased investment in military-style enforcement strategies largely based upon simple economic models of rational crime. However, effective solutions will probably require a context-specific, stakeholder-driven mix of top-down and bottom-up mechanisms grounded in theory that represents human behaviour more realistically. Using a problem-oriented approach we illustrate in theory and practice how community-based strategies that explicitly incorporate local values and institutions are a foundation for combating rhinoceros poaching effectively in specific contexts. A case study from Namibia demonstrates how coupling a locally devised rhinoceros monitoring regime with joint-venture tourism partnerships as a legitimate land use can reconcile individual values represented within a diverse stakeholder group and manifests as both formal and informal community enforcement. We suggest a social learning approach as a means by which international, national and regional governance can recognize and promote solutions that may help empower local communities to implement rhinoceros management strategies that align individual values with the long-term health of rhinoceros populations.

Addressing a Persistent Policy Problem: The Elk Hunt in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming

ABSTRACT The elk reduction program (elk hunt) in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming, has been controversial since its inception in 1950. We interviewed 35 stakeholders and surveyed literature to understand participant perspectives in relation to ongoing conflict. Stakeholders held conflicting perspectives, problem definitions, and value orientations. Hunt opponents felt their interests were not reflected in decision making, while hunt proponents were dissatisfied with federal agency management. Agency officials focused on technical aspects of elk management (e.g., overpopulation, objectives) and did not address conflict driven by underlying value dynamics. Decisions made by the agencies (National Park Service, Wyoming Game and Fish Department) through the institution of wildlife management failed to integrate diverse interests. As a result, many nonagency participants felt disrespected by current decision-making arrangements. The long-term controversy has caused a persistent policy problem. We offer recommendations for how the social process could be better organized to build more effective governance and management.

Discourses of Elk Hunting and Grizzly Bear Incidents in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming

ABSTRACT Incidents of human–wildlife conflict can solidify participant perspectives and expectations, and reveal underlying social and institutional dynamics. We describe and analyze two incidents of conflict between hunters and grizzly bears in 2011 and 2012. Both incidents were associated with the controversial elk hunt in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming. We gathered quotes from opinion-editorials and interviews, categorized quotes according to type, and used cluster analysis to identify discourses and associated coalitions of participants. We examined how participants defined problems, used evidence, and advocated solutions in relation to these incidents. Participant discourses addressed technical and procedural issues of regional wildlife management that extended beyond these incidents, revealing divergent expectations about wildlife management on public lands. Existing decision-making processes dominated by government agencies do not appear to be addressing these expectations. We recommend an integrative, outside appraisal of regional elk management to address conflict and support ecologically sound decision-making that serves common interests.

People, predators and place: rodenticide impacts in a wildland-urban interface

Human development near protected areas may pose challenges for carnivore conservation. In southern California, residential use of anticoagulant rodenticides is linked to non-target impacts on wild felids. We use an interdisciplinary policy sciences meta-framework and mixed methods to investigate landscape, social and policy factors affecting secondary rodenticide impacts on bobcats (Lynx rufus). Results suggest that landscape features, such as fruit trees and irrigation ditches are common locations for deploying anticoagulants. Residents construct a wildland-urban interface discourse that influences residential rodent control behaviour. Interviews with pest control operators and wildlife managers reveal a “scientized” management paradigm masking third-party residential anticoagulant use, which may have greater impacts on wild felids than residential use alone. The US Environmental Protection Agency may have reason to refocus anticoagulant use regulations to increase effectiveness in mitigating impacts on non-target wildlife. This study highlights the need for comprehensive, contextual policy to manage wildlife in the common interest.