Susan Hart

A Question of Foot Dominance

It is suggested that the popular definition of foot dominance (i.e., the limb preferred to execute a manipulative or mobilizing action while the other [nondominant] foot provides stabilizing support, e.g., kicking a ball) be reconsidered in light of understanding the functional characteristics of footedness and selected theoretical explanations. Relevance to future research designs and assessment methodology is discussed.

General Motor Proficiency and Handedness in Children

Recent investigations suggest that children who exhibit consistent hand-preference behavior are better coordinated than those who lack this characteristic. The current investigation tested this assumption with a trichotomous hand-preference grouping (right, mixed [inconsistent], left) of 96 children. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency was used. Results indicate that for total performance, right-handers significantly out-performed the other two groups, which were not significantly different from one another. Fine- and gross-motor composite analyses suggest that left-handers are at a greater disadvantage than their mixed-handed peers, compared with right-handers. Thus, in the context of general motor proficiency, consistent right-handers seem to differ from their inconsistent (mixed) and left-handed counterparts. These findings may be explained, in part, by maturational differences that provide an advantage to those with left-hemispheric dominance.

Examining the Mobilizing Feature of Footedness

This study examined the mobilizing feature of footedness in a unilateral and a bilateral context. Analysis for 47 right- and 32 left-footed undergraduates indicated a strong relationship between preferred limbs in both conditions, with right footers showing the strongest concordance. Theoretical explanations for the origin of behavior and differences in right versus left concordance are discussed. Based on selected previous reports and the present findings, it seems reasonable that for most persons the right foot may be preferred for mobilizing activities regardless of behavioral context.

Brief Communication: Bilateral Footedness and Task Complexity

The primary intent of this investigation was to determine if stabilizing complexity (postural control) influenced lower limb selection while performing a bilateral footedness task. Right- and left-footed subjects (as determined by a bilateral preference inventory) were asked to stand on one foot and tap a telegraph key with the opposite foot repeatedly. The bilateral task was conducted in two conditions of stabilizing complexity, with the intent to augment focus of attention between stabilizing and mobilizing limb: simple (lights on) and complex (limitation of visual cues). Results indicated that in both simple and complex conditions, 50% or more of subjects switched stabilizing limbs or showed no preference when comparing preference inventory behavior to experimental conditions, suggesting, in general, that foot preference may be in part dependent on the context of the task and not tied predominantly to biological theory.

Hand Preference Consistency and Fine Motor Performance in Young Children

Recent investigations suggest that children who establish handedness early are better coordinated than those who lack this characteristic. To test this assumption, 160 4- to 6-year-olds were classified by consistent (established) and inconsistent (mixed) hand preference behavior and tested for fine motor performance using a finger tapping task. Analysis of the data revealed no significant differences existed between groups in finger tapping performance in relation to total sample, age or sex. Thus, contrary to recent reports, children with consistent and inconsistent hand preferences do not appear to differ in motor behavior as revealed by performance on a fine motor task. Furthermore, it appears that the performance of those with inconsistent hand preference presents a significant challenge to current theoretical notions of the genesis of handedness.

FOOT PERFORMANCE OF RIGHT- AND LEFT-HANDERS: A QUESTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE

Prior research has shown that right-handed adults perform better on a speed-tapping task with the right hand and right foot, while left-handers execute more rapidly with the left hand and right foot. Speculation is that environmental influence, most likely driving experience, may account for the right-foot bias. To examine this hypothesis further, 48 young right- and left-handed children were tested on a similar protocol. Analyses indicated no significant differences in foot performance within hand-preference groups. Since these findings do not complement reports for adults, factors such as experience or maturation might contribute to the difference. Were patterns similar, the effect of environmental influence would be assumed to be small. However, much more evidence is needed before an adequate explanation can be developed. The issue of possible environmental influence is discussed from various theoretical perspectives.

LIMB LATERALITY AND MOTOR PROFICIENCY IN CHILDREN

This investigation examined the premise derived from recent reports, that children who are consistent right-handers are better coordinated than their left- and mixed-sided (inconsistent) peers. The observation of limb laterality was extended to include footedness. Two samples of children (N = 273) (foot laterality/hand laterality), matched for age and sex, were assessed for motor proficiency and compared according to limb preference (right, mixed, left). Overall, results indicated no significant group differences (ps > .05) in composite scores (upper-limb, lower-limb, combination) and total performance, within foot and hand laterality. In view of recent studies (noting differences between laterality groups) and these nonsupportive results, it appears that additional inquiry is warranted before any consensus regarding the association between limb laterality and motor coordination can be established. Suggestions for further inquiry are presented.

Foot-Tapping Speed in Children Ages 4 to 6 Years

This investigation examined the performance and measurement characteristics of foot-tapping speed in 155 4- to 6-year-olds. Analysis suggested that, while the task does not differentiate between preferred and nonpreferred limbs, performance does appear to be age-related, that is, subjects tapped significantly faster with increasing age. Considering type of task and population, reliability was judged as moderate.

A note on trichotomous classification of handedness and fine-motor performance in children

Abstract The fine-motor performance (finger-tapping speed) of a trichotomous hand-preference grouping (right, left, mixed) of 4- to 6-year-olds matched on age and sex was examined. Results indicated no significant differences in overall performance between groups, nor could any variations be attributed to sex. Regarding within-group performance, only the right-handed group exhibited limb differentiation by tapping significantly faster with the preferred (right) hand. Thus, contrary to some reports, left- and mixed-handers do not seem to be inferior to consistent right-handers in the performance of a fine-motor task. These findings are discussed in light of developmental theory and are parallel with previous studies of adults and dichotomous investigations of children.