Susan J. Linz

Job Satisfaction Among Russian Workers

Why do Russians work without wages? This paper investigates the extent to which job satisfaction and attitude toward work in general may account for the observed behavior of Russian workers. To analyze the level and determinants of job satisfaction among Russian workers, this paper utilizes survey data collected from 1,200 workers and managers employed in seventy-six organizations in Moscow, Saratov and Taganrog The paper is divided into five parts. Part 1 presents the three measures of job satisfaction used in this analysis. Response patterns, analyzed by occupational status, gender, and generation, are discussed. Part 2 first explores gender and generational differences in attitudes toward work in general, and then examines the relationship between attitude toward work and job satisfaction. The results indicate that both gender and generation are significant in response patterns regarding attitudes toward work. Generational differences also are significant in response patterns relating the results of working hard to performance, productivity, and doing the job well. Regression analysis documents the positive relationship between attitude toward work and the level of job satisfaction. Part 3 focuses on the relationship between job satisfaction and performance. Three noteworthy results emerge. First, regardless of the specification or measure, there is a strong positive correlation between job satisfaction and performance. The relationship is not affected by gender, age, or educational attainment level of the respondents. Second, it is not possible using these data to establish causality between job satisfaction and performance. It appears, instead, that unspecified factors may be affecting the two conditions simultaneously. Finally, the results generated from these data are not significantly different from results based on previous surveys of U.S. workers, as well as a survey completed in 1996 of Russian and Polish workers. Part 4 analyzes the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Among the workers participating in this survey there is, generally, only a moderate degree of organizational commitment. Commitment is highest among workers who feel they are making a contribution. The results document a positive relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment, although the causality is not well-defined. Concluding remarks are offered in Part 5.

What Makes Workers Happy? Anticipated Rewards and Job Satisfaction

Using data collected from over 9,400 employees in Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Serbia, across a wide variety of workplaces and sectors, we identify the extrinsic and intrinsic rewards that workers desire, and the desirability of rewards they expect to receive. We use regression analysis to evaluate the association between anticipated rewards and job satisfaction, hypothesizing that the desirability of the reward matters more for extrinsic than intrinsic rewards. We find that anticipated extrinsic rewards tend to have a greater influence on job satisfaction if these rewards are important to that particular worker. Anticipated intrinsic rewards appear to be equally beneficial to all workers, regardless of their desirability. Anticipated rewards which have the largest effect on job satisfaction include additional pay, respect of co-workers, and more freedom on the job.

Red executives in Russia's transition economy

An American economist uses survey data—collected from more than 2,000 firms in Moscow, Rostov, Volgograd, and Novosibirsk between 1992 and 1995-to evaluate former state enterprise executives in terms of their ability to maintain or expand production and/or employment, as well as to maintain their position under the new conditions of Russias transition economy. With regard to production and employment, such executives more often than not tend to fare poorly, whereas with respect to job security, they tend to be winners. Empirical data indicating significant variations by industry encompass the fuel and power sectors, metallurgy, machine-building, chemicals, forest products, construction/ building materials, printing, and food processing. The firms examined vary in size from 10,000 workers. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: LI, M2, P42. 8 tables, 24 references.

Worker Morale in Russia: An Exploratory Study

Despite unanimous agreement in the existing literature that morale influences employee performance, no well-defined measure of morale exists. Our study develops a robust measure of morale and focuses on the factors that influence morale among Russian workers. Survey data were collected from Russian employees at two different points in time, 1995 and 2002, in five Russian cities. Among the workers participating in our study, expectation of receiving a desired reward contributes to high morale, with expected monetary rewards having a larger influence than expected non-monetary rewards, but praise for a job well done and a feeling of accomplishment also contribute positively to employee morale. There is a significant correlation between positive attitudes toward work and morale, and a positive correlation between performance assessment and morale. Demographic characteristics (age and gender) have no discernable influence on morale when controls are included for work experience.

The Impact of World War II on the Soviet Union

This volume brings together current research by prominent scholars in the US and abroad in such diverse disciplines as economics, literature, political science, religion, history and sociology to investigate the ways in which World War II affected Soviet life.

Ownership and Employment in Russian Industry: 1992-1995

What impact did privatization have on employment in Russian industry? Utilizes data collected from a panel of 6,205 civilian manufacturing firms in the Central, Volga, North Caucasus, Northern and Western Siberian regions of Russia to explore in more detail the relationship between changes in ownership and employment in Russian industry between 1992 and 1995. In particular investigates whether change in ownership structure is relatively more important than industry, region, or the competitive position of the firm in explaining variation in the employment response to changing output conditions during the initial stage of Russia’s transition from plan to market.

Job Satisfaction, Expectations, and Gender: Beyond the European Union

Purpose - Do gender differences in expected rewards contribute to gender differences in job satisfaction? Design/methodology/approach - This paper utilizes data collected from over 9,400 employees in five economically and culturally diverse former socialist economies, first, to determine whether there are gender differences in desired and expected rewards, and second, to assess whether the link between job satisfaction and expected reward varies by gender or reward desirability. Findings - This paper finds that for women, job satisfaction is positively linked to both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards, but for men, job satisfaction tends to be positively linked to extrinsic rewards. When reward desirability is included, more often for women than for men, non-monetary rewards are positively linked to job satisfaction regardless of whether they are viewed as desirable. Among men, the link between job satisfaction and a particular reward tends to be stronger if the reward is desired, although for job security this result holds for women as well. While own earnings tend to be positively linked to job satisfaction, comparison earnings are not statistically significant among most groups of respondents. Finally, we find that the magnitude of the estimated partial effect of increasing the expectation of receiving a particular reward tends to be greater for men than for women. Research limitations/implications - By focussing on gender difference results that are common across these five diverse countries, we are able to add information that will prove useful in developing a more global perspective of factors influencing job satisfaction and worker performance. Originality/value - This paper identifies gender differences in desired and expected rewards, both intrinsic and extrinsic, enabling us to more systematically explore gender differences in the link between job satisfaction, expectations, and reward desirability. Because our data come from employees in over 600 workplaces, we are able to control for an extensive number of worker, job, and workplace characteristics, which allows us to investigate in more detail, not only our primary objective – gender differences in the link between job satisfaction and expected rewards – but also several related topics: the proposition that women generally have lower workplace expectations, the link between job satisfaction and comparison earnings, for example.

Analyzing the gender pay gap in transition economies: How much does personality matter?

We estimate the personality-earnings relation in Russia, Armenia and Kazakhstan and examine how much of the gender pay gap can be explained by locus of control (LOC). We use data from an employee survey conducted in 2005 and employ Oaxaca-Blinder-Neumark decomposition. Among Russian and Armenian survey participants, men are more likely to exhibit an internal LOC (attribute success to own actions), and individuals with an internal LOC tend to earn more than individuals who attribute success to fate or other external forces (exhibit an external LOC). In Kazakhstan, gender differences in LOC and the estimated effects of LOC on earnings are small and statistically insignificant. Gender differences in LOC explain 5.5 percent of the gender pay gap in Armenia, 7 percent in Russia, and 2.7 percent in Kazakhstan. Our findings suggest that personality plays an important role in explaining the pay gap.

Labor Productivity in Transition: A Regional Analysis of Russian Industry

This paper examines within-industry variation in labor productivity at the beginning of Russias transition process in 1992, as well as regional variation in the percentage of firms that exhibit below industry average labor productivity. The main hypothesis is that industries and regions where a disproportionate share of firms exhibited below average labor productivity in 1992 will experience above average employment reductions between 1992 and 1995. In only 25 percent of the locales included in this analysis, however, does the predicted match emerge. Most of these locales are located in the Central region.

Job Satisfaction and Perceived Gender Equality in Advanced Promotion Opportunities: An Empirical Investigation

Does gender equality in advanced promotion opportunities in the workplace have consequences for job satisfaction? We use data collected from workers in six formerly socialist economies (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Serbia) to investigate the link between job satisfaction and the perceived chance that a woman would hold a senior‐level position at the firm. Among many survey participants, such a link exists and is positive; that is, these survey participants enjoy working at firms that promote gender balance at the top. The positive link is explained in part by worker personality/attitudes and firm characteristics, and in part by the result that participating workers often enjoy higher job satisfaction because they perceive the lack of ‘glass ceiling’ as a signal of improved own career opportunities. Among women, positive effects are more significant for younger workers. We discuss possible explanations for these findings, as well as cross‐country differences and policy implications.