Susan J. Spieker

Are infant attachment patterns continuously or categorically distributed? A taxometric analysis of strange situation behavior.

Contemporary attachment research is based on the assumption that at least three types of infant attachment patterns exist: secure, avoidant, and resistant. It is not known, however, whether individual differences in attachment organization are more consistent with a continuous or a categorical model. The authors addressed this issue by applying P. E. Meehls (1973, 1992) taxometric techniques for distinguishing latent types (i.e., classes, natural kinds) from latent continua (i.e., dimensions) to Strange Situation data on 1,139 fifteen-month-old children from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. The results indicate that variation in attachment patterns is largely continuous, not categorical. The discussion focuses on the implications of dimensional models of individual differences for attachment theory and research.

Developmental Trajectories of Disruptive Behavior Problems in Preschool Children of Adolescent Mothers

Using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM), we analyzed individual developmental trajectories of disruptive behavior problems between ages 3.5 to 6.0 years for 183 children of adolescent mothers. We examined how the level of problem behavior (intercept) and the rate of change over time (slope) are influenced by childs sex, mothers depression/anxiety symptoms, and mothers use of negative control for regulating child behavior. On average, disruptive behavior decreased from age 3.5 to 6.0. Child sex and maternal depression/anxiety related to the level of behavior problems but not to the rate of change. Boys and children of more depressed/anxious mothers exhibited higher levels of disruptive behavior. Maternal negative control was associated with both level of disruptive behavior and rate of change, and negative control mediated the effects of maternal depression/anxiety. Greater negative control corresponded to higher levels of behavior problems and no reduction in their display over time. Child race moderated effects of negative control.

The course of maternal depressive symptoms and maternal sensitivity as predictors of attachment security at 36 months

We examined the course of maternal depressive symptoms and childrens attachment security at 36 months in a large sample of mother-child pairs from 10 sites across the country participating in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care (N = 1077). Maternal depressive symptoms predicted higher rates of insecure attachment. Women who reported intermittent symptoms across the first 36 months had preschoolers who were more likely to be classified as insecure C or D; women with chronic symptoms were more likely to have preschoolers who were classified as insecure D. Symptoms reported only during the first 15 months were not associated with elevated rates of later insecurity. After controlling for potentially confounding demographic variables, maternal sensitivity (observed at 6, 15, 24, and 36 months) did not meaningfully account for links between attachment security and patterns of depressive symptoms. However, the course and timing of maternal depressive symptoms interacted with maternal sensitivity to predict insecurity. Women with late, intermittent, or chronic symptoms who were also low in sensitivity were more likely to have preschoolers who were insecure, in contrast to symptomatic women who were high in sensitivity. These data have implications for understanding the combined impact of maternal depressive symptoms and maternal sensitivity on childrens socioemotional development.

Prevention of Parenting Alterations for Women with Low Social Support

Parenting is a demanding role. Traditionally societies provide mechanisms for supporting major caregivers. For most parents the partner relationship is a source of refueling energy. In addition, often the extended family members provide support for the parent(s). In a prior research study dealing with early intervention where the family demonstrated double vulnerability, defined by pregnancy complications and social problems, we found the mothers most resistant to help were women who both had a lot of situational problems and few if any friends or family supporting them (Barnard et al. 1985). This finding prompted us to think about parents who did not have the supportive mechanisms cultures generally provide.

Self-reported abuse history and adolescent problem behaviors. I. antisocial and suicidal behaviors

PURPOSE To examine the associations of self-reported abuse and sexual molestation with self-reported antisocial behavior and suicidal ideation/behavior in a general population of adolescents. METHODS We used a stratified cluster sampling procedure with replacement to sample 4790 students in Washington State public schools in Grades 8, 10, and 12. Students were asked in a self-administered questionnaire whether they had ever been abused by an adult and whether they had ever been sexually molested. They were also asked about antisocial behavior and suicidal ideation and behavior in the past year. We conducted polytomous logistic regressions, controlling for gender and grade, using Software for the Statistical Analysis of Correlated Data (SUDAAN). RESULTS Reported abuse history was associated with antisocial behavior and with suicidal ideation and behavior. The associations were stronger for abuse and molestation than for nonsexual abuse or molestation alone, and stronger at higher levels of severity (e.g., suicide attempts vs. suicidal thoughts). For example, adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals (in parentheses) for abuse and molestation were 4.4 (3.1-6.2) for suicidal thoughts, 6.8 (4.4-10.4) for suicide plan, 12.0 (7.9-18.4) for noninjurious suicide attempt, and 47.1 (23.3-95.3) for injurious suicide attempt. For abuse alone, these figures were 2.3 (1.7-3.2), 3.1 (2.1-4.6), 5.1 (3.3-7.8), and 11.8 (4.4-31.9), respectively. CONCLUSIONS Efforts to reduce antisocial behavior and suicidal ideation/behavior in adolescence, particularly early or severe manifestations of the behaviors, should consider the possible role of a history of maltreatment, especially the possibility of sexual abuse.

Structure and variability in the developmental trajectory of children's externalizing problems: Impact of infant attachment, maternal depressive symptomatology, and child sex

This study explores the developmental trajectory of externalizing problems in a sample of 101 children of adolescent mothers from preschool through third grade using hierarchical linear models (HLM). First, a detailed assessment of the structure of the developmental trajectory of externalizing problems is provided. Second, the impact of three risk factors (infant attachment, maternal depressive symptomatology, and child sex) on the developmental course of externalizing problems is assessed. Both avoidant and disorganized attachment and higher levels of maternal depressive symptomatology were associated with higher levels of externalizing problems at 9 years of age. Girls also showed higher externalizing problems relative to their same-sex peers than did boys. In addition, maternal depressive symptomatology related to the rate of change in these problems over time: the greater the mothers depression, the faster externalizing problems tended to increase. Although the overall level of maternal depressive symptomatology was related to childrens externalizing problems for secure, avoidant, and disorganized groups, changes in maternal depressive symptomatology over time predicted levels of externalizing problems only for children with avoidant insecure attachments.

Self-reported abuse history and Adolescent problem behaviors. II. Alcohol and drug use

PURPOSE We examined the associations of self-reported abuse and sexual molestation with self-reported alcohol and drug use in a general population of adolescents. METHODS We used a stratified cluster sampling procedure with replacement to sample 4790 students in Washington State public schools in Grades 8, 10, and 12. Students were asked whether they had ever been abused by an adult and whether they had ever been sexually molested. They were also asked about their levels of alcohol and drug use and about early initiation of substance use. We conducted polytomous logistic regressions, controlling for gender and grade, using Software for the Statistical Analysis of Correlated Data (SUDAAN). RESULTS We identified associations between reported abuse history and alcohol and drug use in adolescence and early initiation of substance use. The associations between reported abuse history and alcohol use were stronger at younger ages. The strongest association was between combined abuse and molestation, and relatively severe (heavy) drinking by eighth graders (odds ratio, 7.9; 95% confidence interval, 2.6-17.4). For drug use, the associations with reported abuse history were slightly stronger at higher levels of severity and for combined abuse and molestation compared to nonsexual abuse. For early initiation, the associations with abuse history were stronger for combined abuse and molestation than for nonsexual abuse or molestation alone, and stronger for marijuana use/regular drinking than for alcohol/cigarette experimentation. For example, adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals (in parentheses) for combined abuse and molestation were 3.5 (2.8-4.5) for alcohol/cigarette experimentation and 12.2 (6.3-23.6) for marijuana use/regular drinking by age 10. For abuse alone, these figures were 2.5 (2.0-3.1) and 4.7 (3.0-7.3), respectively. CONCLUSION Efforts to reduce substance use and abuse in adolescence, particularly heavy use and use early in adolescence, should consider the possible role of a history of maltreatment.

Affect dysregulation in the mother-child relationship in the toddler years: Antecedents and consequences

The purpose of this study was to examine child, maternal, and family antecedents of childrens early affect dysregulation within the mother-child relationship and later cognitive and socioemotional correlates of affect dysregulation. Childrens affect dysregulation at 24 and 36 months was defined in the context of mother-child interactions in semistructured play and toy cleanup. Dyads were classified as dysregulated at each age based on high negative affect. Affect dysregulation was associated with less maternal sensitivity and stimulation, more maternal depressive symptoms, and lower family income over the first 36 months of life. Children with early negative mood, lower Bayley Mental Development Index scores and insecure-avoidant (15 months) or insecure-resistant attachment classifications (36 months) were more likely to be in an affect-dysregulated group. Controlling for family and child variables, affect-dysregulated children had more problematic cognitive, social, and behavioral outcomes at 54 months, kindergarten, and first grade. The findings are discussed in terms of the early role played by parents in assisting children with affect regulation, the reciprocal nature of parent-child interactions, and the contribution of affect regulation to childrens later cognitive, social, and behavioral competence.

Does class size in first grade relate to children's academic and social performance or observed classroom processes?

This study evaluated the extent to which first-grade class size predicted child outcomes and observed classroom processes for 651 children (in separate classrooms). Analyses examined observed child-adult ratios and teacher-reported class sizes. Smaller classrooms showed higher quality instructional and emotional support, although children were somewhat less likely to be engaged. Teachers in smaller classes rated typical children in those classes as more socially skilled and as showing less externalizing behavior and reported more closeness toward them. Children in smaller classes performed better on literacy skills. Larger classrooms showed more group activities directed by the teacher, teachers and children interacted more often, and children were more often engaged. Lower class sizes were not of more benefit (or harm) as a function of the childs family income. First-grade class size in the range typical of present-day classrooms in the United States predicts classroom social and instructional processes as well as relative changes in social and literacy outcomes from kindergarten to first grade.

Effects of Grandmother Coresidence and Quality of Family Relationships on Depressive Symptoms in Adolescent Mothers.

New welfare policies mandate minor unmarried adolescent mothers to coreside with a parent or adult guardian to qualify for cash assistance. The influence of grandmother coresidence and the quality of familial relationships on adolescent mothers psychological well-being is little understood. This article considers the main and interactive effects of grandmother coresidence family cohesion and young mother conflict with grandmother on adolescent reports of depressive symptoms in a sample (N = 194) of predominantly low-income adolescent mothers. Young mothers ranged in age from 15 to 17 years during pregnancy. Predictor variables associations with depressive symptoms were examined at 6 18 and 30 months post-partum. No main effects of grandmother coresidence on adolescents depressive symptoms were found. In contrast the quality of family relationships as well as the interaction of grandmother coresidence with family cohesion were associated with depressive symptoms. Adolescent mothers with the greatest depressive symptoms were those who coresided with grandmothers under conditions of poor family cohesion. Implications for new welfare policies are discussed. (authors)